NOTES
- Dorothy Riley Dempsey, interview by Kathleen M. Ryan, Sept. 19, 2006.
- Allan M. Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda: The Office of War Information, 1942–1945 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1978), 57.
- Michael Griffin, “The Great War Photographs: Constructing Myths of History and Photojournalism,” in Picturing the Past: Media, History and Photography, ed. Bonnie Brennen and Hanna Hardt (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999).
- See Paul Hendrickson et al., Bound for Glory: America in Color, 1939–43 (New York, Washington, D.C.: H.N. Abrams; in association with the Library of Congress, 2004); Mame Warren, “Focal Point of the Fleet: U.S. Navy Photographic Activities in World War II,” The Journal of Military History 69 (October 2005): 1045–1080; and Annalisa Zox-Weaver, “When the War Was in Vogue: Lee Miller's War Reports,” Women's Studies 32, no. 2 (2003): 131–64.
- Women served in the military unofficially during World War I, but Congress closed the loophole after the war ended. That left many advocating for the need for women's service as war broke out in Europe. See D'Ann Campbell, “Servicewomen and the American Military Experiment,” in A Woman's War Too, ed. Pauline N. Poulos & United States, National Archives and Records Administration (Washington, D.C.: National Archives and Records Administration, 1996), 15–25; and Jeanne Holm, Women in the Military: An Unfinished Revolution (Novato, Calif.: Presidio Press, 1982).
- Jean Ebbert and Mary Beth Hall, Crossed Currents: Navy Women from WWI to Tailhook (Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 1993).
- Florence H. Snow, Alumnae House Diary, Aug. 26, 1942, Sophia Smith Collection, 12 WS, box 1, 16G2 180, Smith College Archives, Northampton, Mass.
- The archives at Smith College offer an especially rich collection of newspaper clippings due to Snow's efforts, but archives at Radcliffe and Barnard Colleges as well as Virginia Gildersleeve's files at Columbia University also hold numerous clippings culled from publications found around the country.
- Warren, “Focal Point,” 1049.
- Ibid., 1073.
- See Jacquie L'Etang, “Public Relations and Propaganda: Conceptual Issues, Methodological Problems, and Public Relations Discourse,” in Public Relations: Critical Debates and Contemporary Practice, ed. Jacquie L'Etang and Magda Pieczka (Mahweh, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc., 2006), 23–40.
- See: L'Etang, “Public Relations and Propaganda”; and Garth S. Jowett and Victoria O'Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications, 1999).
- See Jowett and O'Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion.
- See Harold D. Lasswell, “The Results of Propaganda,” in Mass Communication and American Social Thought, ed. John Durham Peters and Peter Simonson (Lanham, Md.: Roman & Littlefield Publishers, 2004), 47–50.
- Alfred McClung Lee and Elizabeth Bryant Lee, “From The Fine Art of Propaganda,” in Mass Communication and American Social Thought, ed. John Durham Peters and Peter Simonson (Lanham, Md.: Roman & Littlefield Publishers, 2004), 126.
- L'Etang, “Public Relations and Propaganda,” 28.
- See Lasswell, “The Results of Propaganda.”
- Jay Black, “Semantics and the Ethics of Propaganda,” Journal of Mass Media Ethics 16, nos. 2–3 (2001): 122.
- Jowett and O'Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion, 6.
- Lee identifies three exceptions to the U.S. government denouncement on propaganda: widely held values, presidential missives, and war. He acknowledges these exceptions are vague. See Mordecai Lee, Promoting the War Effort: Robert Horton and Federal Propaganda 1938–1946 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2012), 2–4.
- L'Etang, “Public Relations and Propaganda,” 35. L'Etang's study included research done in the Institute of Public Relations archives in the United Kingdom, which conducted interviews with public relations practitioners after the end of World War II.
- See L'Etang, “Public Relations and Propaganda.”
- Frederick E. Lumley, The Propaganda Menace (New York: The Century Co., 1933).
- See Edward L. Bernays, Propaganda (New York: H. Liveright, 1928).
- See Leonard W. Doob, Public Opinion and Propaganda (Hamden, Conn.: Archon, 1966).
- See Lee, Promoting the War Effort.
- Jerome Braverman, To Hasten the Homecoming: How Americans Fought World War II through the Media (Lanham, Md.: Madison Books, 1996), 50.
- Ibid., 51.
- Sue Hart, “Madison Avenue Goes to War: Patriotism in Advertising during World War II,” in Visions of War: World War II in Popular Literature and Culture, ed. M. Paul Holsinger and Mary Ann Schofield (Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1992), 119.
- Lee, Promoting the War Effort, 184.
- Winkler, The Politics of Propaganda, 57.
- Navy Service: A Short History of the United States Naval Training School (WR) Bronx, NY, compiled by the Public Relations Office, USNTS (WR), Elizabeth Reynard Papers, box 2, 5V, Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University, 24.
- Information Program for the Women's Reserve of the US Navy, Office of War Information/Bureau of Naval Personnel, October 1943, Jane Barton Papers, mc 542, box 3, folder 3.1 [Loose items from #7F+B10-7F+B12], Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, Harvard University.
- Ibid., n.p. (preface).
- Ibid., 1.
- Ibid., 2. No reason was given for the selection of these specific dates.
- Ibid., 1.
- Ibid., 2.
- Susan M. Hartmann, The Home Front and Beyond: American Women in the 1940s (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1982), 23.
- Maureen Honey, Creating Rosie the Riveter: Class, Gender and Propaganda during World War II (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984).
- Sherna Berger Gluck, Rosie the Riveter Revisited: Women, the War, and Social Change (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1987).
- Kathleen M. Ryan, “‘Don't Miss Your Great Opportunity’: Patriotism and Propaganda in World War II Recruitment Posters,” Visual Studies 27 no. 3 (November 2012): 248–61.
- While in contemporary culture the “We Can Do It!” Rosie poster has gained a great deal of currency, it was only displayed in Midwest Westinghouse factories for two weeks in early 1943. By contrast, the May 1943 Saturday Evening Post cover by Norman Rockwell was distributed nationwide. See James J. Kimble and Lester C. Olsen, “Visual Rhetoric Representing Rosie the Riveter: Myth and Misconception in J. Howard Miller's ‘We Can Do It!’ Poster,” Rhetoric and Public Affairs 9 no. 4 (Winter 2006): 533–69.
- While men were drafted into both the Army and Marines during World War II, the Navy remained a volunteer force.
- Leisa D. Meyer, Creating GI Jane: Sexuality and Power in the Women's Army Corps during World War II (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 29.
- See The World War II Rumor Project Collection, The American Folklife Center, 1945–001, folder 1, The Library of Congress, The American Folklife Center, hereafter referred to AFC 1945–001.
- Information Program, 2.
- Ibid., 5.
- Ibid., 11.
- Ibid., 2.
- Ibid.
- Ibid., 10.
- Ibid., 6.
- While the Army had segregated troops in the WAAC/WAC, the Navy did not accept African American recruits at first because it was believed that African American men's jobs would not need replacing since they would be on the front lines and later because WAVES leadership wanted full integration. See Ebbert and Hall, Crossed Currents; and Regina T. Akers, “Doing Their Part: The WAVES in World War II” (Ph.D. diss., Howard University, 2000).
- Francis Thorpe, Memoir, Frances Thorpe Collection AFC/2001/001/3768327, Veterans History Project, American Folklife Center, Library of Congress.
- Cynthia Neverdon-Morton, “Securing the ‘Double V’: African-American and Japanese-American Women in the Military during World War II,” in A Woman's War Too, 327–54.
- See ibid.
- Jean Byrd Stewart, interview with Kathleen M. Ryan, Sept. 20, 2006.
- Ibid.
- See Warren, “Focal Point.”
- The collection of Francis Snow can be found at the Sophia Smith Collection in the Women's History Archives at Smith College. Winnifred Quick Collins, Elizabeth Reynard, and Jane Barton's collections are held by Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, and the Mildred McAfee Horton papers are held by the archives in the Margaret Clapp Library at Wellesley College. The archives and special collections at Northern Iowa University and Mount Holyoke College as well as the American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress were also visited in conjunction with this project.
- “WAVE Uniform,” Life, Sept. 21 1942, 49.
- “WAVE Uniform,” Vogue, Oct. 1, 1942, n.p.
- “All American Women 1942 vs. 1941,” Look, Dec. 15, 1942, 14.
- Association of National Advertisers, Magazine Circulation and Rate Trends 1940–1957 (New York: Association of National Advertisers, 1958).
- Charles Hagan, “Review/Photography: Showing Women in a New Way Freely,” New York Times, Feb. 12, 1993, http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE7D8173EF931A25751C0A965958260.
- Susan Stamberg, “Interview with Henri Cartier-Bresson,” Morning Edition, National Public Radio, July 3, 2003.
- Nola Tully, “Martin Munkásci: Think While You Shoot,” New Criterion, April 2007, 65.
- Hagan, “Showing Women in a New Way Freely.”
- “WAACs and WAVES,” Life, March 15, 1943, 72.
- Ibid., 76.
- Roland Barthes, Camera Lucida (New York: Hill and Wang, 1981).
- Life notes in its “Contents”: “All photos and text concerning the Armed Forces have been reviewed and passed by a competent military or naval authority,” Life, March 15, 1943, 15.
- Mildred McAfee Horton and Helen K. Sargeant, “Reminiscences of Mildred McAfee Horton: Oral History” (Cambridge, Mass.: Schlessinger Library on the History of Women in America, 1982), 115.
- Bilge Yesil, “‘Who Said This Is a Man's War?’: Propaganda, Advertising Discourse and the Representation of the Woman War Worker During the Second World War,” Media History 10 no. 2 (2004): 113.
- Louise Wilde, “Oral History,” Recollections of Women Officers Who Served in the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Coast Guard in World War II, Including WAVES Director Mildred McAfee, Joy B. Hancock, Jean Palmer, Dorothy Stratton, Elizabeth Crandall, Etta Belle Kitchen, Frances Rich, Eleanor Rigby, Louise Wilde, Tova Wiley and Senator Margaret C. Smith, ed. John Mason and Etta Belle Kitchen (Annapolis, Md.: U.S. Naval Institute, 1979), 21.
- Ibid., 73.
- Ibid., 30.
- Ibid., 31.
- “Goodby Now but Not Forever,” Harper's Bazaar, May 1943, n.p.
- Vicki Goldberg, “Louise Dahl-Wolfe,” in Louise Dahl-Wolfe, ed. Dorothy Twining Globus et al. (New York: Abrams/Umbrage Editions, 2000), 19.
- Nan Richardson, “Louise Dahlf Wolfe,” in Louise Dahl-Wolfe, 28.
- Goldberg, “Louise Dahl-Wolfe,” 21.
- Ibid.
- The date would allow the photograph enough lead time to be published on one of the key recruitment dates identified by the Navy.
- See above.
- Ebbert and Hall, Crossed Currents, 90.
- Horton, “Oral History,” Recollections of Women Officers, 84.
- Information Guide, 1.
- Bilge Yesil, “‘Who Said This Is a Man's War?,’” 113.
- Information Guide, 5.
- Jacques Ellul, Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes (New York: Vintage Books, 1973).