NOTES
- Elizabeth Mendes, “In U.S., Trust in Media Recovers Slightly from All-Time Low,” Gallup, Sept. 19, 2013, http://www.gallup.com/poll/164459/trust-media-recovers-slightly-time-low.aspx.
- The Pew Center for the People & the Press, “Amid Criticism, Support for Media's ‘Watchdog’ Role Stands Out,” The Pew Center for the People & the Press, Aug. 8, 2013, http://www.people-press.org/2013/08/08/amid-criticism-support-for-medias-watchdog-role-stands-out/.
- The Pew Center for the People & the Press, “Further Decline in Credibility Ratings for Most News Organizations,” The Pew Center for the People & the Press, Aug. 16, 2012, http://www.people-press.org/2012/08/16/further-decline-in-credibility-ratings-for-most-news-organizations/.
- Andrew Dugan, “Americans' Confidence in News Media Remains Low,” Gallup, June 19, 2014, http://www.gallup.com/poll/171740/americans-confi-dence-news-media-remains-low.aspx.
- Elizabeth Mendes and Joy Wilke, “Americans' Confidence in Congress Falls to Lowest on Record,” Gallup, June 13, 2013, http://www.gallup.com/poll/163052/americans-confidence-congress-falls-lowest-record.aspx.
- Robert W. McChesney and Ben Scott, “Introduction,” in Our Unfree Press: 100 Years of Radical Media Criticism, ed. Robert W. McChesney and Ben Scott (New York: The New Press, 2004), 2.; John Nerone, “Does Journalism History Matter?,” American Journalism 28, no. 4 (Fall 2011) 7–27.; and Tim P. Vos, “Historical Mechanisms and Journalistic Change,” American Journalism 30, no. 1 (Winter 2013) 36–43.
- Donal Brown, ““Ex-Washington Post Editor Calls Aggregators Parasites, Sees Hope in ‘Accountability Journalism,’” First Amendment Coalition, Sept. 23, 2010, http://www.firstamendmentcoalition.org/2010/09/ex-washington-post-editor-calls-aggregators-parasites-sees-hope-in-accountability-journalism/.
- Jay Rosen, Nicholas Carr, and Tom Standage, “The Economist Debates: The News Industry,” The Economist, July 12–22, 2011, http://www.economist.com/de-bate/days/view/720#pro_statement_anchor.
- McChesney and Scott, “Introduction,” in Our Unfree Press, 25.
- Mark Poster, “Cyberdemocracy: The Internet and the Public Sphere,” in Reading Digital Culture, ed. David Trend (Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Publishing, 2001), 262.
- See for example: Jane B. Singer, “The Political J-Blogger: ‘Normalizing’ a New Media Form to Fit Old Norms and Practices,” Journalism 6, no. 2 (2005): 173–98.; Jane B. Singer, “Strange Bedfellows? The Diffusion of Convergence in Four News Organizations,” Journalism Studies 5, no. 1 (2004): 3–18.; and Jane B. Singer, “The Socially Responsible Existentialist,” Journalism Studies 7, no. 1 (2006): 2–18.
- William P. Cassidy, “Online News Credibility: An Examination of the Perceptions of Newspaper Journalists,” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 12, no. 2 (2007): 478–98.; John Pavlik, “The Impact of Technology on Journalism,” Journalism Studies 1, no. 2 (2000): 229–37; and Mark Deuze, “The Web and Its Journalisms: Considering the Consequences of Different Types of Newsmedia Online,” New Media & Society 5, no. 2 (2003): 203–30.
- Raymond Williams, What I Came to Say (London: Hutchinson Radius, 1989), 172–92.
- Raymond Williams, Television: Technology and Cultural Form, 2d ed. (London: Routledge, 1990).
- Carolyn Marvin, When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking about Communications in the Late Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 5.
- Geoffrey B. Pingree and Lisa Gitelman, “Introduction: What's New about New Media?” in New Media 1740–1915, ed. Lisa Gitelman and Geoffrey B. Pingree, (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2003), xii.
- Jennifer Daryl Slack and J. Macgregor Wise, “Cultural Studies and Technology,” in Handbook of New Media; Social Shaping and Consequences of ICTs, ed. Leah A. Lievrouw and Sonia Livingstone, (London: Sage, 2002), 485–501. For more on Hall's theory of articulation, see Lawrence Grossberg, “On Postmodernism and Articulation: An Interview with Stuart Hall,” Journal of Communication Inquiry 10, no. 2 (1986): 45–60.
- Raymond Williams, The Long Revolution (New York: Chatto & Windus, 1961) 13.
- Clifford G. Christians and James W. Carey, “The Logic and Aims of Qualitative Research,” in Research Methods in Mass Communication, ed. Guido Hermann Stempel and Bruce H. Westley (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1989), 357–58.
- Barbara W. Tuchman, Practicing History (New York: Ballantine Books) 42. The utility of using secondary sources to understand major themes is also supported by Vos, who said, “[E]xplanations—if they are going to be theoretical—must rise to a level of abstraction above the empirically based stories that we tell.” See Vos, “Historical Mechanisms and Journalistic Change,” 38.
- J. Herbert Altschull, From Milton to McLuhan: The Ideas behind American Journalism (New York: Longman, 1990) 40.
- John Milton, Selected Essays of Education, Areopagitica, the Commonwealth (Cambridge, Mass.: The Riverside Press, 1911), 130.
- Altschull, From Milton to McLuhan, 166.
- For a detailed discussion of the normative expectations for the media in a democracy, see Clifford G. Christians, Theodore L. Glasser, Denis McQuail, Kaarle Nordenstreng, and Robert A. White, Normative Theories of the Media (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 114–35.
- The Associated Press, “Statement of Ethical Principles,” Associated Press Managing Editors (1994), http://www.apme.com/?page=ethicsstatement&terms=%22ethics%22.
- Society of Professional Journalists, “Code of Ethics,” Society of Professional Journalists (1996), http://www.spj.org/ethicscode.asp.
- James Melvin Lee, History of American Journalism (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1917), 143. However, it should be noted that contrasting opinions of the era exist, which highlight some of the positive outcomes of partisanship and patronage. For example, Gerald Baldasty argues that the patronage system of the era served to “guarantee” competition and diversity in the press because all parties had their own publications, regardless of whether they were in power. James F. Hamilton also notes that the political decisions, such as postal subsidies and resulting regulatory structures, that developed within this partisan climate enabled the development of transportation and postal systems as well as systems of financial patronage. He contends that these developments also supported the newspaper exchange practice between editors in different towns, which enabled “vigorous public debate.” Hazel Dicken-Garcia makes a similar point, arguing that partisan newspapers nurtured political debates. See Gerald J. Baldasty, The Commercialization of News in the Nineteenth Century (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1992), 24; James F. Hamilton, Democratic Communications (Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2008), 128; and Hazel Dicken-Garcia, Journalistic Standards in Nineteenth-Century America (Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 178.
- Gerald J. Baldasty, “The Nineteenth-Century Origins of Modern American Journalism,” in Three Hundred Years of the American Newspaper, ed. John B. Hench (Lunenburg, Vt.: American Antiquarian Society, 1991), 409.
- Baldasty, Commercialization of News, 25, 29.
- Ibid.
- Smith, Press, Politics, and Patronage.
- Baldasty, Commercialization of News, 23.
- The United States Senate, Report of Committee on Retrenchment, May 15, 1828, in Senate Document 399, 28th Cong. 1st sess., (June 15, 1844).
- William Leggett, “Journalism,” The United States Magazine and Democratic Review, 10 (1842): 53.
- Senate Document 332, 27th Cong., 2nd sess. (Crafts Committee report, June 17, 1842).
- David T.Z. Mindich, Just the Facts: How Objectivity' Came to Define American Journalism (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 11.
- Congressional Globe, 29th Cong., 1st sess. 1845, 12, obtained through HeinOnline, http://home.heinonline.org/.
- Ibid, 13.
- Mindich, Just the Facts, 11.
- Smith, Press, Politics, and Patronage, 212.
- Ibid., 210, 206.
- Baldasty, Commercialization of News, 36.
- Ibid., 43–44.
- Michael F. Holt, The Political Crisis of the 1850s (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1978), 4.
- Morning Herald, May 6, 1835, vol. 1, issue 1.
- Baldasty, Commercialization of News, 81.
- Ibid., 37.
- Alfred McClung Lee, The Daily Newspaper in America (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1937), 314.
- Ibid., 748–49.
- Ibid., 324–25.
- Baldasty, Commercialization of News, 92.
- Gerald J. Baldasty, E.W Scripps and the Business of Newspapers (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1999), 90.
- Ibid., 89.
- Quoted in ibid., 90.
- Baldasty, Commercialization of News, 89.
- John W. Fox to M. Fible, May 11, 1884, John W. Fox Jr. Letters, John Fox Papers, Southern Historical Collection, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C.
- Baldasty, Commercialization of News, 92–93.
- Will Irwin, “The American Newspaper, part XV, The Voice of a Generation,” Collier's, July 29, 1911, 15.
- Ibid., 15, 23, 16.
- Upton Sinclair, The Brass Check (Pasadena, Calif.: Published by the Author, 1920), 222.
- Ibid., 224.
- Michael Schudson, Discovering the News, (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1978), 70.
- Ibid., 71–72.
- Ibid., 79–80.
- Mary M. Cronin and James B. McPherson, “Pronouncement and Denunciations: An Analysis of State Press Association Ethics Codes from the 1920s,” Journalism Quarterly 72 (Winter 1995): 890–901.
- For example, the canon on independence clearly condemned partisanship and devotion to commercial interests arguing, “Freedom from all obligations except that of fidelity to the public interest is vital.” See Sevellon Brown, “Society of Newspaper Editors,” The Public Opinion Quarterly 1, no. 4 (1937): 117–18.
- Bert N. Bostrom, Talent, Truth and Energy (Chicago: The Society of Professional Journalists, 1984), 177.
- Robert W. McChesney, The Political Economy of Media (New York: Monthly Review Press, 2008), 431.
- Jodi Enda and Amy Mitchell, “Americans Show Signs of Leaving a News Outlet, Citing Less Information,” The Pew Research Center's Project for Excellence in Journalism, The State of the News Media 2013, March 18, 2013, http://stateofthe-media.org/2013/special-reports-landing-page/citing-reduced-quality-many-ameri-cans-abandon-news-outlets/.
- Ben Bagdikian, The Media Monopoly (Boston: Beacon Press, 1983), 132.
- Pew Center, “Amid Criticism, Support for Media's ‘Watchdog’ Role Stands Out.”
- Lymari Morales, “Majority in U.S. Continues to Distrust the Media, Perceive Bias,” Gallup, Sept. 22, 2011, http://www.gallup.com/poll/149624/majority-continue-distrust-media-perceive-bias.aspx.
- Herbert Gans, Deciding What's News, 25th Anniversary Ed. (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2004).
- Jane Abbate, Inventing the Internet (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1999), 56.
- Ibid., 54.
- Katie Hafner and Matthew Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996), 145.
- Stephen Crocker, “Documentation Conventions,” RFC 3, April, 1969, http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3.
- Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 145.
- Ibid., 200–1.
- Ibid., 204.
- Ibid., 188.
- Peter H. Salus, Casting the Net: From ARPANET to Internet and Beyond… (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1995), 42.
- Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 194.
- John Naughton, A Brief History of the Future (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1999), 137–38.
- Stephen Carr, Stephen Crocker, and Vinton Cerf, “HOST-HOST Communication Protocol in the ARPA Network,” AFIPS, Proceedings of the Spring Joint Computer Conference (Montvale, N.J.: AFIPS Press, 1970), 589.
- For more on Baran's research on decentralized networks, see Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 58–71.
- Paul Baran, “On Distributed Communication Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Communication Systems V CS-12, March 1964, 1–9.
- Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 115.
- Fernando Corbato and Robert Fano, “Time-Sharing on Computers,” in Information — A Scientific American Book (San Francisco: W.H. Freeman & Co, 1967), 76.
- Naughton, A Brief History of the Future, 105.
- Ibid., 196.
- Ibid., xii.
- Robert H. Reid, Architects of the Web: 1,000 Days That Built the Future of Business (New York: Wiley, 1997), 5.
- Hafner and Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late, 25.
- Lawrence Lessig, “Open Code and Open Societies: The Values of Internet Governance,” 1999 Sibley Lecture, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga., Feb. 16, 1999, http://digitalcommons.law.uga.edu/lectures_pre_arch_lectures_sibley/73/.
- For the complete Drudge story, see Matt Drudge, “Archives,” The Drudge Report, Jan. 17, 1998, http://www.drudgereportarchives.com/data/2002/01/17/20020117_175502_ml.htm.
- Adam Goodheart, “Sleaze Journalism? It's an Old Story,” The New York Times, Feb. 20, 1998.
- Ibid.
- Jack Shafer, “The Web Made Me Do It,” The New York Times, Feb. 15, 1998.
- Oliver Burkeman, “Bloggers Catch What Washington Post Missed,” The Guardian, Dec. 21, 2002.
- Lawrence Lessig, Free Culture (New York: Penguin, 2004), 43.
- Burkeman, “Bloggers Catch What Washington Post Missed.”
- Mark Memmot, “Scoops and Skepticism: How the Story Unfolded,” USA Today, Sept. 21, 2004, http://www.usatoday.com/news/politicselections/nation/president/2004-09-21-guard-scoops-skepticism_x.htm.
- Scott Johnson, “The Sixty-First Minute,” Powerline, Sept. 9, 2004, http://www.powerlineblog.com/archives/2004/09/007699.php.
- Charles Johnson, “Bush Guard: Documents Forged,” Little Green Footballs, Sept. 9, 2004, http://littlegreenfootballs.com/article/12526_Bush_Guard_Docu-ments-_Forged.
- Memmot, “Scoops and Skepticism: How the Story Unfolded.”
- Howard Kurtz, “After Blogs Got Hits, CBS Got a Black Eye,” The Washington Post, Sept. 20, 2004, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A34153-2004Sep19.html.
- Ibid.
- Lev Grossman, “Blogs Have Their Day,” Time, Dec. 19, 2004, http://www.time.com/time/subscriber/personoftheyear/2004/poyblogger.html.
- Ibid.
- “Time Names Power Line 2004 Blog of the Year,” Time, Dec. 19, 2004, http://www.time.com/time/press_releases/article/0,8599,1009851,00.html.
- Jon Leyne, “How Iran's Political Battle Is Fought in Cyberspace,” BBC News, Feb. 11, 2010, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8505645.stm; and Jared Keller, “Evaluating Iran's Twitter Revolution,” The Atlantic, June 18, 2010, http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2010/06/evaluating-irans-twitter-revolution/58337/.
- “The New Normal for News,” Oriella PR Network, June 2013, http://www.oriellaprnetwork.com/sites/default/files/research/Brands2Life_ODJS_v4.pdf.
- “The Future of the Internet: A Virtual Counter-Revolution,” The Economist, Sept. 2, 2010, http://www.economist.com/node/16941635?story_id=16941635&fsrc=rss.
- Justin Horwath, “The Fight Over Net Neutrality Goes to the Inner City,” Time, Aug. 23, 2010, http://www.time.com/time/nation/arti-cle/0,8599,2012580,00.html#ixzz10IqXwav4.
- Henry Jenkins, Fans, Bloggers and Gamers: Media Consumers in a Digital Age (New York: New York University Press, 2006); Aaron Barlow, Blogging America (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2008); and Henry Jenkins and Mark Deuze, “Editorial: Convergence Culture,” Convergence 14, no. 1 (2008): 5–12.
- Jenkins, Fans, Bloggers and Gamers; and Barlow, Blogging-America.
- Henry Jenkins, Convergence Culture (New York: New York University Press, 2008); and Christy Dena, “Emerging Participatory Culture Practices,” Convergence 14, no. 1 (2008): 41–57.
- Janey Gordon, “The Mobile Phone and the Public Sphere: Mobile Phone Usage in Three Critical Situations,” Convergence 13, no. 3 (2007): 307–19.
- Jenkins, Convergence Culture.
- Jenkins and Deuze, “Editorial: Convergence Culture.”
- Peter Dahlgren, “The Troubling Evolution of Journalism,” in The Changing Faces of Journalism, ed. Barbie Zelizer (London: Routledge, 2009), 153.
- Amber Roessner, Rick Popp, Brian Creech, and Fred Blevens, “‘A Measure of Theory?’ Considering the Role of Theory in Media History,” American Journalism 30, no. 2 (spring 2013): 263.
- Nerone, “Does Journalism History Matter?,” 2.
- See for example ibid., 7–27; Christians and Carey, “The Logic and Aims of Qualitative Research,” 357–58.; Vos, “Historical Mechanisms and Journalistic Change,” 36–43; and Roessner, Popp, Creech, and Blevens, “‘A Measure of Theory?,’” 260–78.
- Roessner, Popp, Creech, and Blevens, “‘A Measure of Theory?,’” 263.