The Image and the Perception of the Turk in Freedom's Journal

NOTES

• I prefer to use the term African American in my article because this term shifts the definition of the group from the racial description to a cultural and ethnic identity and I think it is more respectful to use “African American” instead of “black” or “people of color.”
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• Juan Gonzalez and Joseph Torres, News for all the People: The Epic Story of Race and the American Media (New York: Verso Books, 2012), 109.
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• Ibid., 110.
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• JBHE Foundation, “Negro Higher Education as Seen Through the Antebellum Black Press,” The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education 20 (Summer 1998): 36–38.
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• Jacqueline Bacon, “The History of Freedom's Journal: A Study in Empowerment and Community,” The Journal of African American History 88, no. 1 (2003): 1–20.
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• “To Our Patrons,” Freedom's Journal, March 16, 1827.
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• Bacon, “The History of Freedom's Journal,” 9.
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• Bella Gross, “Freedom's Journal and the Rights of All,” The Journal of Negro History 17, no. 3 (1932): 241–86.
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• Gonzalez and Torres, News for all the People, 111.
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• Jacqueline Bacon, Freedom's Journal: The First African-American Newspaper (New York: Lexington Books, 2007), 29–30.
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• G.E.M. De Ste. Croix, The Class Struggle in the Ancient Greek World (New York: Cornell University Press, 1981), 546.
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• James Lee Ray, “The Abolition of Slavery and the End of International War,” International Organization 43, no. 3 (1989): 405–39.
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• Ibid., 409.
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• Seymour Drescher, “White Atlantic? The Choice for African Slave Labor in the Plantation Americas,” in Slavery in the Development of the Americas, ed. David Lewis Eltis and Kenneth Frank Sokoloff (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004): 31–70.
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• Ibid., 36.
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• James Walvin, Questioning Slavery (New York: Routledge, 1996): 25.
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• David Brion Davis, “Looking at Slavery from Broader Perspectives,” The American Historical Review 105, no. 2 (2000): 467–71.
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• Alan Nevis and Henry Steele Commager, ABD Tarihi, trans. Halil İnalcik (Istanbul: Dogu-Bati Yayinlari, 2005): 46–52.
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• Robert E. Shalhope, “Race, Class, Slavery, and the Antebellum Southern Mind,” The Journal of Southern History 37, no. 4 (1971): 557–74.
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• Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 2.
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• White citizens of the United States passed antiliteracy laws in many areas. Those laws banned teaching reading and writing to African American slaves during the Civil War era. Ruling white people understood the power of literacy and education.
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• Yasemin G. Inceoglu, Uluslararası Medya (Istanbul: Beta Yayinlari, 2000), 8.
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• Gross, “Freedom's Journal and the Rights of All.”
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• “Memoirs of Capt. Paul Cuffee,” Freedom's Journal, March 16, 1827.
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• Paul Wittek, “Devshirme and Shari'a,” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 17, no. 2 (1955): 271–78.
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• Asli Cirakman, “From Tyranny to Despotism: The Enlightenment's Unenlightened Image of the Turks,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 33, no. 1 (2001): 49–68.
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• V.L. Ménage, “Some Notes on the ‘Devshirme,’” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 29, no. 1 (1966): 64–78.
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• Edward Mead Earle, “American Interest in the Greek Cause, 1821–1827,” The American Historical Review 33, no. 1 (1927): 44–63.
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• Robert L. Daniel, “American Influences in the Near East before 1861,” American Quarterly 12, no. 1 (1964): 72–84.
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• Edward Mead Earle, “Early American Policy Concerning Ottoman Minorities,” Political Science Quarterly 16, no. 1 (1927): 337–67.
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• We might consider that the United States, as a nascent nation, heavily drew on motives loaned from the Classical Age. The founding fathers linked the American struggle for independence against “British tyranny” to events in the classical ages. Subsequently, the authors of the famous “Federalist Papers,” Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, even took the pen name “Publius,” and even in post-revolutionary architecture the Americans were heavily influenced by an idealized image of classical antiquity.
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• “Mahommedan Logic,” Freedom's Journal, April 27, 1827.
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• “The Song of the Janissary,” Freedom's Journal, May 4, 1827.
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• Arthur Leon Horniker, “The Corps of Janizaries,” Military Affairs 8, no. 3 (1944): 177–204.
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• Freedom's Journal was pointing to the aforementioned abolition of the force as an obstacle to the creation of a modern army in the sense of contemporary “line troops.”
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• The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery, s.v. “Janissary.”
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• “Burial of a Man Alive,” Freedom's Journal, May 18, 1827.
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• “Foreign News,” Freedom's Journal, July 27, 1827.
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• “Greek Song,” Freedom's Journal, Sept. 7, 1827.
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• “Latest from England and Most Important from Greece,” Freedom's Journal, Dec. 21, 1827.
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• “Total Destruction of the Combined Turkish and Egyptian Fleets,” Freedoms Journal, Dec. 21, 1827.
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• “Mahmoud II: The Reigning Sultan of Turkey,” Freedom's Journal, Jan. 18, 1828.
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• “Summary,” Freedom's Journal, April 25, 1828.
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• Earle, “American Interest in the Greek Cause, 1821–1827,” 44–63.
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• “Morgan Discovered in Asia,” Freedom's Journal, April 25, 1828.
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• “Greeks,” Freedom's Journal, June 13, 1828.
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• Rita Roberts, Antislavery, Abolition, and the Atlantic World: Evangelicanism and the Politics of Reform in Northern Black Thought, 1776–1863 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2010): 76.
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• “Turkish Affairs,” Freedom's Journal, July 4, 1828.
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• The American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) a.k.a American Board. Beginning in 1820, American missionaries were trying to increase the number of Protestants and adopt the American culture in the region (especially in Smyrna). They also gave great importance to improving the educational activities among the Armenians and Greeks. See Dilşen İtnce Erdoğan, “Amerikan Protestan Misyonerlerinin Raporlarinda İzmir İstasyonu'nun Kuruluşu ve Faaliyetleri (1820–1900),” Karadeniz Araştirmalari 33, (2012): 97–108.
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• Daniel, “American Influences in the Near East before 1861,” 72–84.
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• “Turkish Skill in the Use of the Sabre,” Freedom's Journal, Aug. 22, 1828.
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• “Mahometan Sermon,” Freedom's Journal, Sept. 19, 1828.
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• “Constantinople,” Freedom's Journal, Oct. 10 1828.
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• Freedom's Journal, Dec. 20, 1828.
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• “Turkish Women,” Freedom's Journal, Jan. 9, 1829.
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• “Letter from Greece,” Freedom's Journal, Feb. 7, 1829.
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