Experiences of Stigmatization and Discrimination in Accessing Health Services: Voices of Persons Living With HIV in Ghana

REFERENCES

• Aggleton, P., & Parker, R.A. (2002). Conceptual Framework and Basis for Action: HIV/AIDS Stigma and Discrimination. Geneva, Switzerland: Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS.
   Google Scholar
• Alonzo, A., & Reynolds, N. (1995). Stigma, HIV and AIDS: An exploration and elaboration of a stigma trajectory. Social Science and Medicine, 41(3), 303–315.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allport, G.W. (1979). The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books.
   Google Scholar
• Amo-Adjei, J., & Darteh, E.K. (2013). Drivers of young people’s attitudes towards HIV/AIDS stigma and discrimination: Evidence from Ghana. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 17(4), 51–59.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amosu, A.M., Degun, A.M., Makinde, C.M., Thomas, A.M., & Babalola, A.O. (2011). An assessment of specific knowledge and attitude of healthcare providers towards people living with HIV/AIDS in Ibadan, Nigeria. Annals of Biological Research,2(2), 255–264.
   Google Scholar
• Awusabo-Asare, K. (1995). Living with AIDS: Perceptions, attitudes and post-diagnosis behaviour of HIV/AIDS patients in Ghana. Health Transition Review, 5, 265–278.
   Google Scholar
• Bennett, M.J. (1990). Stigmatization: Experiences of persons with Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 11, 141–154.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Boateng, D., Kwapong, G., & Agyei-Baffour, P. (2013). Knowledge, perception about antiretroviral therapy (ART) and prevention of mother-to-child- transmission (PMTCT) and adherence to ART among HIV positive women in the Ashanti Region, Ghana: A cross-sectional study. BMC Women’s Health, 13(2). Retrieved from http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6874/13/2
   Google Scholar
• Brewer, M.B. (2007). The social psychology of intergroup relations: Social categorization, in group bias, and out group prejudice. In A.W. Kruglanski and E.T. Higgins ( eds). Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, C., Nair, Y., Maimane, S., & Nicholson, J. (2007). Dying twice: A multi-level model of the roots of AIDS stigma in two South African communities. Journal of Health Psychology, 12(3), 403–416.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Churcher, S. (2013). Stigma related to HIV and AIDS as a barrier to accessing health care in Thailand: A review of recent literature. South-East Asia Journal of Public Health, 2(1), 12–22.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Clottey-Sefa, D. (2001). HIV/AIDS and discrimination observations from Ghana. AFLA Quarterly, no. 1384–282x.
   Google Scholar
• Collymore, Y. (2002). Rooting Out AIDS-Related Stigma and Discrimination. Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau.
   Google Scholar
• Derlega, V.J., Winstead, B.A., Geene, K., Serovich, J., & Elwood, W.N. (2004). Reasons for HIV disclosure/nondisclosure in close relationships: Testing a model of HIV-disclosure decision making. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 747–767.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• dos Santos, M.L., Kruger, P., Mellors, S.E., Wolvaardt, G., & van der Ryst, E. (2014). An exploratory survey measuring stigma and discrimination experienced by people living with HIV/AIDS in South Africa: The people living with HIV stigma index. BMC Public Health, 14(80). doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-80
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• El-Adas, A. (2013). Commemoration of 2013 World AIDS Day. Retrieved from http://ghanaids.gov.gh/gac1/2013_wad_statement_gac_dg.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Emlet, C.A. (2005). Measuring stigma in older and younger adults with HIV/AIDS: An analysis of an HIV stigma scale and initial exploration of subscales. Research on Social Work Practice, 15(4), 291–300.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Emlet, C.A. (2008). Truth and consequences: A qualitative exploration of HIV disclosure in older adults. AIDS Care, 20(6), 710–717.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Earnshaw, V.A., & Chaudoir, S.R. (2009). From conceptualizing to measuring HIV stigma: A review of HIV Stigma mechanism measures. AIDS and Behavior, 13, 1160–1177.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feyissa, G.T., Abebe, L., Girma, E., & Woldie, M. (2012). Stigma and discrimination against people living with HIV by healthcare providers, Southwest Ethiopia. BMC Public Health, 12, 522. Retrieved from http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/12/522
   Google Scholar
• Gerbert, B., Sumser, J., & Maguire, B.T. (1991). The impact of who you know and where you live on opinions about AIDS and health care. Social Science and Medicine, 32(6), 677–681.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ghana AIDS Commission. (2012). Ghana Country AIDS Progress Report. Retrieved from http://www.unaids.org/en/dataanalysis/knowyourresponse/countryprogressreports/2012countries/ce_GH_Narrative_Report%5B1%5D.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Ghana Statistical Service. (2013). 2010 Population & Housing Census Report. Retrieved from http://www.statsghana.gov.gh/docfiles/2010phc/2010_POPULATION_AND_HOUSING_CENSUS_FINAL_RESULTS.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Gibson, B., & Mykitiuk, R. (2012). Health care access and support for disabled women in Canada: Falling short of the UN convention on the rights of persons with disabilities: A qualitative study. Women’s Health Issues, 22(1), 111–118.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
   Google Scholar
• Green, G., & Platt, S. (1997). Fear and loathing in health care settings reported by people with HIV. Sociology of Health and Illness, 19(1), 70–92.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasdeu, I. (2009). The Schooling of Roma Children in Belgium: The Parents’ Voice. Brussels, Belgium: King Baudouin Foundation.
   Google Scholar
• Herek, G.M. (1999). AIDS and stigma. American Behavioral Scientist, 42(7), 1106–1116.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herek, G.M. & Glunt, E.K. (1988). An epidemic of stigma: Public reactions to AIDS. American Psychologist, 43(11), 886–891.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hong, K.T., Anh, N.T.V., & Ogden, J. (2004). Understanding HIV and AIDS-Related Stigma and Discrimination in Vietnam. Washington, DC: International Center for Research on Women.
   Google Scholar
• International Center for Research on Women. (2002). Understanding HIV-Related Stigma and Resulting Discrimination in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: International Center for Research on Women.
   Google Scholar
• Kalichman, S.C., & Simbaye, L.C. (2003). HIV testing attitudes, AIDS stigma, and voluntary HIV counselling and testing in a black township in Cape Town, South Africa. Sexually Transmitted Infections, 79, 442–447.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalichman, S.C., & Simbayi, L. (2004). Traditional beliefs about the cause of AIDS and AIDS-related stigma in South Africa. AIDS Care, 16, 572–580.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanahra, S. (2006). A review of the definitions of stereotype and a proposal for a progressional model. Individual Differences Research, 4, 306–321.
   Google Scholar
• Laryea, M., & Gien, L. (1993). The impact of HIV-positive diagnosis on the individual, part 1: Stigma, rejection, and loneliness. Clinical Nursing Research, 2(3), 245–266.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Letamo, G. (2004). HIV/AIDS-related stigma and discrimination among adolescents in Botswana. African Population Studies, 9, 191–203.
   Google Scholar
• Letamo, G. (2005). The discriminatory attitudes of health workers against people living with HIV. PLoS Medicine, 2(8), 0715–0716.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lieber, E., Li, L., Wu, Z., Rotheram-Borus, M.J., & Guan, J. (2006). HIV/STD stigmatization fears as health-seeking barriers in China. AIDS and Behavior, 10, 463–471.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Link, B.G. (1987). Understanding labeling effects in the area of mental disorders: An assessment of the effects of expectations of rejection. American Sociological Review, 52, 96–112.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Li, L., Wu, Z., Wu, S., Zhaoc, Y., Jia, M., & Yan, Z. (2007). HIV-related stigma in health care settings: A survey of service providers in China. AIDS Patient Care and STDs, 21(10), 753–762.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mak, W.W., Poon, C.Y., Pun, L.Y., & Cheung, S.F. (2007). Meta-analysis of stigma and mental health. Social Science & Medicine, 65, 245–261.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markowitz, F.E. (1998). The effects of stigma on the psychological wellbeing and life satisfaction of persons with mental illness. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 39, 335–347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mbonu, N.C., van den Borne, B., & De Vries, N.K. (2009). Stigma of people with HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa: A literature review. Journal of Tropical Medicine. doi:10.1155/2009/145891
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Miller, A.N., & Rubin, D.L. (2007). Factors leading to self disclosure of a positive HIV diagnosis in Nairobi, Kenya: People living with HIV/AIDS in the Sub-Sahara. Qualitative Health Research, 17(5), 586–598.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oduro, G.Y., & Otsin, M. (2013). Perspectives on HIV/AIDS stigma and discrimination: Voices of some young people in Ghana. Sex Education, 13(2), 146–58.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Otieno, P.A, Kohler, P.K., Bosire, R.K., Browa, E.R., Macharia, S.W., & Johnson-Stewart, G.C. (2010). Determinants of failure to access care in mothers referred to HIV treatment programs in Nairobi, Kenya. AIDS Care, 22(6), 729–736.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Poku, K.A., Linn, J.G., Fife, B.L., Azar, S., & Kendrick, L. (2005). A comparative analysis of perceived stigma among HIV-positive Ghanaian and African American males. Journal of Social Aspects of HIV/AIDS 2(3), 344–351.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rankin, W.W., Brennan, S., Schell, E., Laviwa, J., & Rankin, S.H. (2005). The stigma of being HIV-positive in Africa. PLoS Medicine, 2(8). doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020247
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reis, C., Heisler, M., Amowitz, L.L., Moreland, R.S., Mafeni, J.O., Anyamele, C., & Iacopino, V. (2005). Discriminatory attitudes and practices by health workers towards patients with HIV/AIDS in Nigeria. PLoS Med, 2(8), e246.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scambler, G., & Hopkins, A. (1986). Being epileptic: Coming to terms with stigma. Sociology of Health & Illness, 1, 26–43.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ullah, A. (2011). HIV/AIDS-related stigma and discrimination: A study of health care providers in Bangladesh. Journal of the International Association of Physicians in AIDS Care, 10, 97–104.
   Google Scholar
• UNAIDS. (2003). Stigma and Discrimination. Geneva: UNAIDS.
   Google Scholar