Exploring the dynamics of policy change in EU security and defence: policy entrepreneurs behind the Strategic Compass

References

• Ackrill, Robert, and Adrian Kay (2011). ‘Multiple Streams in EU Policy-Making: The Case of the 2005 Sugar Reform’, Journal of European Public Policy, 18:1, 72–89.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Angelucci, Davide, and Pierangelo Isernia (2020). ‘Politicization and Security Policy: Parties, Voters and the European Common Security and Defense Policy’, European Union Politics, 21:1, 64–86.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Auswärtiges Amt (2020). Together for Europe’s Recovery. Programme for Germany’s Presidency of the Council of the European Union’, available at https://www.eu2020.de/blob/2360248/e0312c50f910931819ab67f630d15b2f/06-30-pdf-programm-en-data.pdf (accessed 3 March 2023).
   Google Scholar
• Barigazzi, Jacopo (2019). ‘Borrell Urges EU to be Foreign Policy ‘Player, Not the Playground’. Politico 9 December
   Google Scholar
• Barigazzi, Jacopo (2021). ‘EU Arms Itself Against Russia, China with Age-old Tactic: A Policy Document’, Politico 16 November.
   Google Scholar
• Barigazzi, Jacopo, Camille Gijs, and Stuart Lau (2022). ‘EU Toughens Language on Russia in its Defense Plan’, Politico 18 March.
   Google Scholar
• Baumgartner, Frank R., and Bryan D. Jones (1991). ‘Agenda Dynamics and Policy Subsystems’, The Journal of Politics, 53:4, 1044–74.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bicchi, Federica (2002). ‘Actors and Factors in European Foreign Policy-Making: Insights from the Mediterranean Case’, EUI Working Paper, 47.
   Google Scholar
• Biscop, Sven (2018). ‘European Defence: Give PESCO a Chance’, Survival, 60:3, 161–80.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Biscop, Sven (2021). ‘The Strategic Compass: Entering the Fray’, Security Policy Brief, 149.
   Google Scholar
• Blockmans, Steven, and Dylan M. Crosson (2022). ‘PESCO: A Formula for Positive Integration in European Defence’, in Benjamn Leruth, Jarle Trondal and Stefan Gänzle (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Differentiation in the European Union. Abingdon: Routledge, 370–90.
   Google Scholar
• Borrell, Josep (2020). ‘Embracing Europe’s Power, Project Syndicate 8 February.
   Google Scholar
• Brzozowski, Alexandra (2021). ‘EU Leaders Caught in Either-Or Argument over European Defence Strategy’, EURACTIV 6 October.
   Google Scholar
• Bunde, Tobias (2022). ‘Lessons (to Be) Learned? Germany’s Zeitenwende and European Security after the Russian Invasion of Ukraine’, Contemporary Security Policy, 43:3, 516–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, Nissim (2016). ‘Policy entrepreneurs and agenda setting’, in Nikolaos Zahariadis (ed.), Handbook of Public Policy Agenda Setting. Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing, 180–99.
   Google Scholar
• Copeland, Paul, and Scott James (2014). ‘Policy Windows, Ambiguity and Commission Entrepreneurship: Explaining the Relaunch of the European Union’s Economic Reform Agenda’, Journal of European Public Policy, 21:1, 1–19.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Council of the European Union (2016). ‘Implementation Plan on Security and Defence’ 14 November 2016.
   Google Scholar
• Council of the European Union (2018). ‘Council Conclusions on Security and Defence in the context of the EU Global Strategy’, 25 June 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Council of the European Union (2019). ‘Council Conclusions on Security and Defence in the context of the EU Global Strategy’, 17 June 2019.
   Google Scholar
• Council of the European Union (2020). ‘Informal Meeting of Defence Ministers’, 4–5 March 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Council of the European Union (2021a). ‘Council Conclusions on Security and Defence’ 10 May 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Council of the European Union (2021b). ‘A Strategic Compass for Security and Defence - For a European Union that Protects Its Citizens, Values and Interests and Contributes to International Peace and Security’, 9. November 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Council of the European Union (2021c). ‘Outcome of the Council Meeting. Foreign Affairs’, 16 November 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Council on the European Union (2020). ‘Council Conclusions on Security and Defence’, 17 June 2020.
   Google Scholar
• Deschaux-Dutard, Delphine (2022). ‘European Defence in an Interpolar Context: Explaining the Limitations of French-German Contribution to European Strategic Autonomy’, Defence Studies, 22:4, 591–608.
   Google Scholar
• Drent, Margriet, and Dick Zandee (2016). ‘After the EUGS: Mainstreaming a New CSDP’, Issue Alert, 34. Paris: European Union Institute for Security Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Ekengren, Magnus, and Simon Hollis (2020). ‘Explaining the European Union’s Security Role in Practice’, JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 58:3, 616–35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engberg, Katarina (2021). ‘A European Defence Union by 2025? Work in Progress’, Policy Overview, January, Swedish Institute for European Policy Studies.
   Google Scholar
• EU Institute for Security Studies (2020). ‘Defending Europe. Analysing the Threats and Strategic Challenges Facing the EU’, Final Report.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission (2017). ‘Designing Europe’s Future: Security and Defence Fieldwork’, Special Eurobarometer, 461 Issue April.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission (2022a). ‘Commission Contribution to European Defence’, 15 February 2022.
   Google Scholar
• European Commission (2022b). ‘Roadmap on Critical Technologies for Security and Defence.’
   Google Scholar
• European Council (2016). ‘European Council Meeting’ 15 December 2016.
   Google Scholar
• European Council (2017). ‘European Council Meeting’, 19 October 2017.
   Google Scholar
• European Council (2018). ‘European Council Conclusions’, 28 June 2018.
   Google Scholar
• European Council (2021). ‘Statement of the Members of the European Council’ 26 February 2021.
   Google Scholar
• European Council (2022a). ‘European Council meeting. Conclusions Conclusions’, 24 and 25 March 2022.
   Google Scholar
• European Council (2022b). ‘Informal Meeting of the Heads of State or Government’, Versailles Declaration’, 10 March 2022.
   Google Scholar
• European External Action Service (2016). ‘Shared Vision, Common Action: A Stronger Europe. A Global Strategy for the European Union’s Foreign And Security Policy’, June 2016.
   Google Scholar
• European External Action Service (2020). ‘Memo. Questions and Answers: Threat Analysis – a Background for the Strategic Compass’, 5 May 2020.
   Google Scholar
• European External Action Service (2021). ‘Scoping Paper: Preparation of the Strategic Compass’, 8 February 2021.
   Google Scholar
• European External Action Service (2022). ‘A Strategic Compass for Security and Defence.
   Google Scholar
• Fiott, Daniel (2018). ‘Strategic Autonomy: Towards ‘European Sovereignty’ in Defence?’, Brief Issue 12, European Union Institute for Security Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Fiott, Daniel (2020). ‘Uncharted Territory? Towards a Common Threat Analysis and a Strategic Compass for EU Security and Defence’, EUISS Brief 16, European Union Institute for Security Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Fiott, Daniel, and Gustav Lindstrom (2021). ‘Strategic Compass. New Bearings for EU Security and Defence?’, EUISS Chaillot Papers 171, European Union Institute for Security Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Fiott, Daniel Antonio Missiroli, and Thierry Tardy (2017). ‘Permanent Structured Cooperation: What’s in a Name?’, EUISS Chaillot Paper 142, European Union Institute for Security Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Gnesotto, Nicole (2022). Strategic Compass: Industry or Power? Blogpost. Paris: Jacques Delors Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Håkansson, Calle (2021a). ‘Finding Its Way in EU Security and Defence Cooperation: A View from Sweden’, European View, 20:1, 80–7.
   Google Scholar
• Håkansson, Calle (2021b). ‘The European Commission’s New Role in EU Security and Defence Cooperation: The Case of the European Defence Fund’, European Security, 30:4, 589–608.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haroche, Pierre (2018). ‘The European Defence Fund: How the European Commission is Becoming a Defence Actor’, Research Paper 56, IRSEM.
   Google Scholar
• Haroche, Pierre (2020). ‘Supranationalism Strikes Back: A Neofunctionalist Account of the European Defence Fund’, Journal of European Public Policy, 27:6, 853–72.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Helwig, Niklar, and Ville Sinkkonen (2022). ‘Strategic Autonomy and the EU as a Global Actor: The Evolution, Debate and Theory of a Contested Term’, European Foreign Affairs Review, 27:Special Issue, 1–20.
   Google Scholar
• Herszenhorn, David M. (2021). ‘German, Dutch Diplomats Urge Stronger NATO-EU Ties’, Politico 20 May,
   Google Scholar
• Kaim, Marcus, and Ronja Kempin (2022). ‘Compass or Wind Chime? An Analysis of the Draft “Strategic Compass” of the EU’, SWP Comment 3, Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik.
   Google Scholar
• Karlović, Antonio, Dario Čepo, and Katja Biedenkopf (2021). ‘Politicisation of the European Foreign, Security, and Defence Cooperation: The Case of the EU’s Russian Sanctions’, European Security, 30:3, 344–66.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kingdon, John W. (2014). Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies. Second Edition. Harlow: Longman.
   Google Scholar
• Koenig, Nicole (2020). ‘The EU’s Strategic Compass for Security and Defence: Just Another Paper?’, Policy Paper. Berlin: Jacques Delors Centre.
   Google Scholar
• Koenig, Nicole, and Marie Walter-Franke (2017). ‘France and Germany: Spearheading a European Security and Defence Union?’, Policy Paper, 202. Paris: Jacques Delors Institute.
   Google Scholar
• Kramp-Karrenbauer, Annegret (2019). Speech by Federal Minister of Defence at the Bundeswehr University Munich, available at https://www.bmvg.de/de/aktuelles/speech-federal-minister-of-defence-security-policy-147072 (accessed 6 June 2023).
   Google Scholar
• Kramp-Karrenbauer, Annegret (2020). ‘Informal Meeting of Defence Ministers: Arrival and Doorstep. Council of the European Union’, available at https://newsroom.consilium.europa.eu/events/20200304-informal-meeting-of-defence-ministers-march-2020/127221-arrival-and-doorstep-de-kramp-karrenbauer-20200304 (accessed 8 May 2023).
   Google Scholar
• Krause, Alexandra (2003). ‘The European Union’s Africa Policy: The Commission as Policy Entrepreneur in the CFSP’, European Foreign Affairs Review, 8:2, 221–37.
   Google Scholar
• Latici, Tanja, and Elena Lazarou (2021). ‘Where Will the EU’s Strategic Compass Point? ‘. Briefing: European Parliamentary Research Service.
   Google Scholar
• Le Gleut, Ronan, and Hélène Conway-Mouret (2021). ‘Quelle boussole stratégique pour l’Union européenne?’, available at http://www.senat.fr/rap/r20-753-2/r20-753-22.html (accessed 15 May 2023)
   Google Scholar
• Major, Claudia, and Christian Mölling (2020). ‘Europe, Germany and Defense: Priorities and Challenges of the German EU Presidency and the Way Ahead for European Defense’, Note, 63, La Fondation pour la recherche stratégique.
   Google Scholar
• Martins, Bruno O., and Jocelyn Mawdsley (2021). ‘Sociotechnical Imaginaries of EU Defence: The Past and the Future in the European Defence Fund’, JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 59:6, 1458–74.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Meijerink, Sandra, and Dave Huitema (2010). ‘Policy Entrepreneurs and Change Strategies: Lessons from Sixteen Case Studies of Water Transitions around the Globe’, Ecology and Society, 15:2, 17.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Merkel, Angela, and Emmanuel Macron (2017). ‘Gemeinsame Erklärung. 19. Deutsch-Französischer Ministerrat’, available at https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/aktuelles/gemeinsame-erklaerung-zum-deutsch-franzoesischen-ministerrat-604596 (accessed 28 April 2023).
   Google Scholar
• Merkel, Angela, and Emmanuel Macron (2018). ‘Meseberg Declaration. Renewing Europe’s promises of security and prosperity’, available at https://www.elysee.fr/en/emmanuel-macron/2018/06/19/meseberg-declaration-renewing-europes-promises-of-security-and-prosperity (accessed 18 April 2023).
   Google Scholar
• Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs (2019). ‘Franco-German Defence and Security Council. Agreed Conclusions’, available at https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/country-files/germany/events/article/franco-german-defence-and-security-council-agreed-conclusions-16-oct-19 (accessed 18 April 2023).
   Google Scholar
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2021). Minister Zbigniew Rau Took Part in the Foreign Affairs Council and the Eastern Partnership Ministerial Meeting in Brussels, available at https://www.gov.pl/web/eu/minister-zbigniew-rau-took-part-in-the-foreign-affairs-council-and-the-eastern-partnership-ministerial-meeting-in-brussels (accessed 2 March 2023).
   Google Scholar
• Mintrom, Michael (1997). ‘Policy Entrepreneurs and the Diffusion of Innovation’, American Journal of Political Science, 41:3, 738–70.
   Google Scholar
• Mintrom, Michael, and Philippa Norman (2009). ‘Policy Entrepreneurship and Policy Change’, Policy Studies Journal, 37:4, 649–67.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mintrom, Michael, and Sandra Vergari (1996). ‘Advocacy Coalitions, Policy Entrepreneurs, and Policy Change’, Policy Studies Journal, 24:3, 420–34.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mogherini, Federica, and Jyrki Katainen (2017). Reflection Paper on the Future of European Defence. Brussels: European Commission.
   Google Scholar
• Molenaar, Arnout (2021). ‘Unlocking European Defence. In Search of the Long Overdue Paradigm Shift’, IAI Papers, 1. Rome: Istituto Affari Internazionali.
   Google Scholar
• Natali, David (2004). ‘Europeanization, Policy Arenas, and Creative Opportunism: The Politics of Welfare State Reforms in Italy’, Journal of European Public Policy, 11:6, 1077–95.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nováky, Niklas (2020). ‘The Strategic Compass. Charting a New Course for the EU’s Security and Defence Policy’. Brussels: Wilfried Martens Centre for European Studies.
   Google Scholar
• Parly, Florence, Annegret Kramp-Karrenbauer, Margartita Robles Fernandez, and Lorenzo Guerini (2020). Letter to EU Defence Ministers and to the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affaris and Security Policy, available at https://agenceurope.eu/en/bulletin/article/12497/17 (accessed 3 March 2023).
   Google Scholar
• Portugal’s Presidency of the Council of the EU (2021). Workshop of EU Defence Ministers on the Strategic Compass, available at https://www.2021portugal.eu/en/news/workshop-of-eu-defence-ministers-on-the-strategic-compass/ (accessed 12 April 2023).
   Google Scholar
• Princen, Sebastian (2011). ‘Agenda-Setting Strategies in EU Policy Processes’, Journal of European Public Policy, 18:7, 927–43.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riddervold, Marianne (2016). ‘(Not) in the Hands of the Member States: How the European Commission Influences EU Security and Defence Policies’, JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies, 54:2, 353–69.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosén, Guri, and Kolja Raube (2018). ‘Influence beyond Formal Powers: The Parliamentarisation of European Union Security Policy’, The British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 20:1, 69–83.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roth, Mathias (2011). ‘Poland as a Policy Entrepreneur in European External Energy Policy: Towards Greater Energy Solidarity Vis-à-Vis Russia? ‘, Geopolitics, 16:3, 600–25.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Satué De Córdova, Ángel (2021). ‘The “Strategic Compass” of the European Union’s Defence. Common Understanding and Strategic Negotiation’, Opinion Paper, 47, Instituto Español de Estudios Estratégicos.
   Google Scholar
• Schön-Quinlivan, Emmanuelle, and Marco Scipioni (2017). ‘The Commission as Policy Entrepreneur in European Economic Governance: A Comparative Multiple Stream Analysis of the 2005 and 2011 Reform of the Stability and Growth Pact’, Journal of European Public Policy, 24:8, 1172–90.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schreurs, Miranda A., and Yves Tiberghien (2007). ‘Multi-Level Reinforcement: Explaining European Union Leadership in Climate Change Mitigation’, Global Environmental Politics, 7:4, 19–46.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shea, Jamie Georg, Riekeles Paul, and Amanda Paul (2022). Will the Strategic Compass be a Gamechanger for EU Security and Defence? European Policy Center
   Google Scholar
• Sjursen, Helen (2011). ‘Not so Intergovernmental after All? On Democracy and Integration in European Foreign and Security Policy’, Journal of European Public Policy, 18:8, 1078–95.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinebach, Yves, and Christoph Knill (2017). ‘Still an Entrepreneur? The Changing Role of the European Commission in EU Environmental Policy-Making’, Journal of European Public Policy, 24:3, 429–46.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stetter, Stephan (2004). ‘Cross Pillar Politics: Functional Unity and Institutional Fragmentation of EU Foreign Policies’, Journal of European Public Policy, 11:4, 720–39.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stone-Sweet, Alec, Wayne Sandholtz, and Neil Fligstein (2001). The Institutionalization of Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sus, Monika (2019). ‘Institutional Innovation of EU’s Foreign and Security Policy: Big Leap for EU’s Strategic Actorness or Much ADO about Nothing?’, International Politics, 56:3, 411–25.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sus, Monika (2021). ‘Supranational Entrepreneurs: The High Representative and the EU Global Strategy’, International Affairs, 97:3, 823–40.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Terlikowski, Marcin (2021). ‘In Search of Direction: EU Strategic Compass’, PISM Policy Paper 9, Polish Institute for International Studies.
   Google Scholar
• The Defence Post (2021). ‘EU Moots Creation of 5,000-Strong Rapid Reaction Force’, The Defence Post, available https://www.thedefensepost.com/2021/05/06/eu-moots-rapid-reaction-force/ (accessed 3 March 2023).
   Google Scholar
• Thierse, Stefan (2019). ‘Policy Entrepreneurship in the European Parliament: Reconsidering the Influence of Rapporteurs’, Journal of European Public Policy, 26:2, 267–85.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• von der Leyen, Ursula (2019). A Union that Strives for More. Political Guidelines for the Next European Commission 2019–2024, available at https://ec.europa.eu/commission/sites/beta-political/files/political-guidelines-next-commission_en.pdf%0Ahttps://. op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/43a17056-ebf1-11e9-9c4e-01aa75ed71a1 (accessed 16 April 2023).
   Google Scholar
• von der Leyen, Ursula, and Jean Yves le Drian (2016). Revitalizing CSDP towards a Comprehensive, Realistic and Credible Defence in the EU, available at https://club.bruxelles2.eu/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/[email protected] (accessed 16 April 2023).
   Google Scholar
• Zahariadis, Nikolaos (2008). ‘Ambiguity and Choice in European Public Policy’, Journal of European Public Policy, 15:4, 514–30.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zahariadis, Nikolaos, and Theofanis Exadaktylos (2016). ‘Policies That Succeed and Programs That Fail: Ambiguity, Conflict, and Crisis in Greek Higher Education’, Policy Studies Journal, 44:1, 59–82.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zandee, Dick Bob Deen, Kimberley Kruijver, and Adaja Stoetman (2020). ‘European Strategic Autonomy in Security and Defence. Now the Going Gets Tough, It’s Time to Get Going’, Clingendael Report, Netherlands Institute of International Relations Clingendael.
   Google Scholar
• Zito, Anthony R. (2001). ‘Epistemic Communities, Collective Entrepreneurship and European Integration’, Journal of European Public Policy, 8:4, 585–603.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zohlnhöfer, Reimut, Nicole Herweg, and Christian Huß (2016). ‘Bringing Formal Political Institutions into the Multiple Streams Framework: An Analytical Proposal for Comparative Policy Analysis’, Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis: Research and Practice, 18:3, 243–56.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar