Conditioned emotional responses in racial prejudice

References

• Allport , Gordon W. 1954 . The Nature of Prejudice , Reading , MA : Addison-Wesley .
   Google Scholar
• Baas , Johanna M.P . 2002 . Benzodiazepines have no effect on fear-potentiated startle in humans . Psychopharmacology , 161 : 233 – 47 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura , Albert and Rosenthal , Theodore L. 1966 . Vicarious classical conditioning as a function of arousal level . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 3 : 54 – 62 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berger , Seymour M. 1962 . Conditioning through vicarious instigation . Psychological Review , 69 : 450 – 66 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blazak , Randy . 2001 . White boys to terrorist men: target recruitment of Nazi skinheads . American Behavior Scientist , 44 : 982 – 1000 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouton , Mark E. 1994 . Context, ambiguity, and classical conditioning . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 3 : 49 – 53 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briggs , Harold E. and Paulson , Robert I. 1996 . “ Racism ” . In Finding Solutions to Social Problems: Behavioral Strategies for Change , Edited by: Mattaini , M. A. and Thyer , B. A. 147 – 77 . Washington , DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• Craig , Kellina M. 2002 . Examining hate-motivated aggression: a review of the social psychological literature on hate crimes as a distinct form of aggression . Aggression and Violent Behavior , 7 : 85 – 101 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crosby , Faye J. , Iyer , Aarti and Sinchareon , Sirinda . 2006 . Understanding affirmative action . Annual Review of Psychology , 57 : 585 – 611 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davey , Graham C. L. 1994a . Is evaluative conditioning a qualitatively distinct form of classical conditioning? . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 32 : 291 – 99 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davey Graham C. L. 1994b Defining the important theoretical questions to ask about evaluative conditioning: a reply to Martin and Levey (1994) , Behaviour Research and Therapy , 32 , pp. 307 – 10
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dehouwer , Jan , Thomas , Sarah and Baeyens , Frank . 2001 . Association of likes and dislikes: a review of 25 years of research on human evaluative conditioning . Psychological Bulletin , 127 : 853 – 69 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dixon , John , Durrheim , Kevin and Tredoux , Colin . 2005 . Beyond the optimal contact strategy: a reality check for the contact hypothesis . American Psychologist , 60 : 697 – 711 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dovidio , John F. and Gaertner , Samuel L. 1996 . Affirmative action, unintentional racial biases, and intergroup relations . Journal of Social Issues , 52 : 51 – 75 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dovidio John F. 1998 On the nature of contemporary prejudice: the causes, consequences, and challenges of aversive racism , in J. L. Eberhardt and S. T. Fiske , Confronting Racism: The Problem and the Response , Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage , pp. 3 – 32
   Google Scholar
• Duckitt , John . 1994 . The Social Psychology of Prejudice , Westport , CT : Praeger .
   Google Scholar
• Durrheim , Kevin and Dixon , John . 2005 . Studying talk and embodied practices: toward a psychology of materiality of race relations . Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology , 15 : 446 – 60 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dygdon , Judith A. , Conger , Anthony J. and Strahan , Esther Y. 2004 . Multimodal classical conditioning of fear: contributions of direct, observational, and verbal experiences to current fears . Psychological Reports , 95 : 133 – 53 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Escobar , Martha and Miller , Ralph R. 2004 . A review of the empirical laws of basic learning in Pavlovian conditioning . International Journal of Comparative Psychology , 17 : 279 – 303 .
   Google Scholar
• Forsyth , John P. and Eifert , Georg H. 1996 . The language of feeling and the feeling of anxiety: contributions of the behaviorisms toward understanding the function-altering effects of language . The Psychological Record , 46 : 607 – 49 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gaertner , Samuel L. and Dovidio , John F. 1986 . “ The aversive form of racism ” . In Prejudice, Discrimination and Racism , Edited by: Dovidio , J. F. and Gaertner , S. L. 61 – 90 . New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gerstenfeld , Phyllis B. , Grant , Diana R. and Chiang , Chau-Pu 2003 Hate online: a content analysis of extremist internet sites , Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy , 3 , pp, 29 – 44
   Google Scholar
• Greenwald , Anthony G. , Mcghee , Debbie E. and Schwartz , Jordan L. K. 1998 . Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: the implicit association test . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 74 : 1464 – 80 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrell , Jules P. 1979 . Analyzing black coping styles: a supplemental diagnostic system . Journal of Black Psychology , 5 ( 2 ) : 99 – 108 .
   Google Scholar
• Harrell , Shelly P. 2000 . A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: implications for the well-being of people of color . American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 70 : 42 – 57 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , J. M. 1997 . Prejudice and Racism , 2nd edn , New York : McGraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Labovitz , Sanford and Hagedorn , Robert . 1975 . A structural-behavioral theory of intergroup antagonism . Social Forces , 53 : 444 – 8 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levey , Archie B. and Martin , Irene . 1975 . Classical conditioning of human “evaluative” responses . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 13 : 221 – 6 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levis , Donald J. 1989 . “ The case for a return to a two-factor theory of avoidance: the failure of non-fear interpretations ” . In Contemporary Learning Theories: Pavlovian Conditioning and the Status of Traditional Learning Theory , Edited by: Klein , S. B. and Mowrer , R. R. 227 – 78 . Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates .
   Google Scholar
• Lipp , Ottmar V. and Purkis , Helena M. 2005 . No support for dual process accounts of human affective learning in simple Pavlovian conditioning . Cognition and Emotion , 19 : 269 – 82 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , Irene and Levey , Archie B. 1994 . The evaluative responses: primitive but necessary . Behaviour Research and Therapy , 32 : 301 – 5 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mcneil , Daniel W., . 1993 . Emotional imagery in simple and social phobia: fear versus anxiety . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 102 : 212 – 25 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mineka , Susan and Ben Hamida , Souhir . 1998 . “ Observational and nonconscious learning ” . In Learning and Behavior Therapy , Edited by: O'Donohue , W. 421 – 39 . Boston , MA : Allyn & Bacon .
   Google Scholar
• Mineka , Susan, . 1984 . Observational conditioning of snake fear in rhesus monkeys . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 93 : 355 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Öhman , Arne . 2008 . “ Fear and anxiety: overlaps and dissociations ” . In Handbook of Emotions , 3rd edn , Edited by: Lewis , M. , Haviland-Jones , J. and Barrett , L. F. 709 – 29 . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Olson , Michael A. and Fazio , Russell H. 2001 . Implicit attitude formation through classical conditioning . Psychological Science , 12 : 413 – 17 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parish , Thomas S. 1974 . Conditioning of racial attitudes and color concepts in children . Perceptual and Motor Skills , 39 : 707 – 14 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettigrew , Thomas F and Tropp , Linda R. 2006 . A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 90 : 751 – 83 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettigrew Thomas F 2008 How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Meta-analytic tests of three mediators , European Journal of Social Psychology , 38 , pp. 922 – 34
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rollock , David and Gordon , Edmund W. 2000 . Racism and mental health into the 21st century: perspectives and parameters . American Journal of Orthopsychiatry , 70 : 5 – 13 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Skinner , B. F. 1937 . Two types of conditioned reflex: a reply to Miller and Konorski . Journal of General Psychology , 16 : 272 – 9 .
   Google Scholar
• Smedley , Audrey and Smedley , Brian D. 2005 . Race as biology is fiction, racism as a social problem is real: anthropological and historical perspectives on the social construction of race . American Psychologist , 60 : 16 – 26 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swim , Janet K., . 2003 . African American college students’ experiences with everyday racism: characteristics of and responses to these incidents . Journal of Black Psychology , 29 : 38 – 67 .
   Google Scholar
• Tierney , Kevin J. and Bracken , Maeve . 1998 . “ Stimulus equivalence and behavior therapy ” . In Learning and Behavior Therapy , Edited by: O'Donohue , W. 392 – 401 . Boston , MA : Allyn & Bacon .
   Google Scholar
• Wu , Ning Ying , Conger , Anthony J. and Dygdon , Judith A. 2006 . Predicting fear of heights, snakes and public speaking from multimodal classical conditioning events . Medical Science Monitor , 12 : 159 – 67 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar