References
- Alexander, M. 2010. The new Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. New York, NY: The New Press.
- Alonso III, F. 2020, April 7th. Why some people of color say they won't wear homemade masks. CNN. Accessed August 22, 2020 from https://www.cnn.com/2020/04/07/us/face-masks-ethnicity-coronavirus-cdc-trnd/index.html.
- Amnesty International. 2020, June 24th. Europe: COVID-19 lockdowns expose racial bias and discrimination within police. Amnesty International. Accessed October 11, 2020. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2020/06/europe-covid19-lockdowns-expose-racial-bias-and-discrimination-within-police/.
- Ao, B. 2020, April 22nd. Asian Americans already face a mental health crisis. Coronavirus racism could make it worse. Philadelphia Inquirer. Accessed October 11, 2020, from https://www.inquirer.com/health/coronavirus/coronavirus-racism-asian-americans-mental-health-20200422.html.
- Beckett, K. 2012. “Race, Drugs, and Law Enforcement: Toward Equitable Policing.” Criminology & Public Policy 11: 641–654.
- Blakkarly, J. 2020, April 12th. Concerns police using coronavirus powers to target marginalised communities in Australia. SBS News. Accessed October 11, 2020, from https://www.sbs.com.au/news/concerns-police-using-coronavirus-powers-to-target-marginalised-communities-in-australia.
- Bonilla-Silva, E. 2004. “From bi-Racial to tri-Racial: Towards a New System of Racial Stratification in the USA.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 27 (6): 931–950.
- Bridges, G. S., and S. Steen. 1998. “Racial Disparities in Official Assessments of Juvenile Offenders: Attributional Stereotypes as Mediating Mechanisms.” American Sociological Review 63 (4): 554–570. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2657267.
- Brooks, E. 2020, August 10th. The Problem with Asking Police to Enforce Public Health Measures. Washington Post. Accessed October 11, 2020. https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/08/10/problem-with-asking-police-enforce-public-health-measures/.
- Calavita, K. 2007. “Immigration Law, Race, and Identity.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 3: 1–20. doi:10.1146/annurev.lawsocsci.3.081806.112745.
- Chang, I. May 21, 2003. Fear of SARS, Fear of Strangers. New York Times. Accessed October 12, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/21/opinion/fear-of-sars-fear-of-strangers.html.
- Correll, J., B. Park, C. M. Judd, and B. Wittenbrink. 2002. “The Police Officer's Dilemma: Using Ethnicity to Disambiguate Potentially Threatening Individuals.” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology 83 (6): 1314–1329. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1314.
- Crawford, C., T. Chiricos, and G. Kleck. 1998. “Race, Racial Threat, and Sentencing of Habitual Offenders.” Criminology; An interdisciplinary Journal 36 (3): 481–512. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01256.x.
- Deshman, A., A. McClelland, and A. Luscombe. 2020. Stay off the grass: COVID-19 and law enforcement in Canada. Canadian Civil Liberties Association and The Policing the Pandemic Mapping Project. Accessed October 13th, 2020. https://ccla.org/cclanewsite/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/2020-06-24-Stay-Off-the-GrassCOVID19-and-Law-Enforcement-in-Canada.pdf.
- Dirks, D., C. Heldman, and E. Zack. 2015. “‘She's White and She's Hot, So She Can't Be Guilty': Female Criminality, Penal Spectatorship, and White Protectionism.” Contemporary Justice Review 18 (2): 160–177. doi:10.1080/10282580.2015.1025626.
- Dixon, T. L. 2017. “Good Guys are Still Always in White? Positive Change and Continued Misrepresentation of Race and Crime on Local Television News.” Communication Research 44 (6): 775–792. doi:10.1177/0093650215579223.
- Eastman, J. T. 2015. “The Wild (White) Ones: Comparing Frames of White and Black Deviance.” Contemporary Justice Review 18 (2): 231–247. doi:10.1080/10282580.2015.1025634.
- Eberhardt, J. L., P. G. Davies, V. J. Purdie-Vaughns, and S. L. Johnson. 2006. “Looking Deathworthy: Perceived Stereotypically of Black Defendants Predicts Capital-Sentencing Outcomes.” Psychological Science 17 (5): 383–386. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01716.x.
- Eberhardt, J. L., P. A. Goff, V. J. Purdie, and P. G. Davies. 2004. “Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87 (6): 876–893. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.876.
- Espinoza-Madrigal, I. 2020, April 16th. Don't Criminalize The Coronavirus. WBUR. Accessed October 11, 2020. https://www.wbur.org/cognoscenti/2020/04/16/police-coronavirus-ivan-espinoza-madrigal.
- Evans, M., and K. Bauer. 2020, May 26th. Chicago Police Only Arrested People For Social Distancing Violations On The South And West Sides, Data Shows. Block Club Chicago. Accessed August 28, 2020. https://blockclubchicago.org/2020/05/26/chicago-police-only-arrested-people-for-social-distancing-on-the-south-and-west-sides-data-shows/.
- Finn, B. M., and L. C. Kobayashi. 2020. “Structural Inequality in the Time of COVID-19: Urbanization, Segregation, and Pandemic Control in sub-Saharan Africa.” Dialogues in Human Geography 10 (2): 217–220.
- Fryer, R. G. 2016. An empirical analysis of racial differences in the use of force. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 22399 at http://www.nber.org/papers/w22399.
- Goff, P. A., T. Lloyd, A. Geller, S. Raphael, and J. Glaser. 2016. Science of Justice: Race, Arrests, and Police use of Force. Los Angeles, CA: Center for Policing Equity, University of California.
- Heitzeg, N. A. 2015. “‘Whiteness,’ Criminality, and the Double Standards of Deviance/Social Control.” Contemporary Justice Review 18 (2): 197–214. doi:10.1080/10282580.2015.1025630.
- Jee-Lyn García, J., and M. Z. Sharif. 2015. “Black Lives Matter: A Commentary on Racism and Public Health.” American Journal of Public Health 105 (8): e27–e30.
- Kahn, K. B., P. A. Goff, J. K. Lee, and D. Motamed. 2016. “Protecting Whiteness: White Phenotypic Racial Stereotypically Reduces Police use of Force.” Social Psychological and Personality Science 7 (5): 403–411. doi:10.1177/1948550616633505.
- Kaplan, J., and B. Hardy. 2020, May 8th. Early Data Shows Black People Are Being Disproportionally Arrested for Social Distancing Violations. ProPublica. Accessed May 28th, 2020. https://www.propublica.org/article/in-some-of-ohios-most-populous areas-black-people-were-at-least-4-times-as-likely-to-be-charged-with-stay-at-homeviolations-as-whites.
- Katznelson, I. 2005. When Affirmative Action was White: An Untold History of Racial Inequality in Twentieth-Century America. New York: WW Norton & Company.
- Levinson, J. D., H. Cai, and D. Young. 2010. “Guilty By Implicit Racial Bias: The Guilty/not Guilty Implicit Association Test.” Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 8: 187–208.
- Levinson, J. D., and D. Young. 2009. “Different Shades of Bias: Skin Tone, Implicit Racial Bias, and Judgments of Ambiguous Evidence.” West Virginia Law Review 112: 307–338.
- Lynch, M., and C. Haney. 2011. Mapping the Racial Bias of the White Male Capital Juror: Jury Composition and the “Empathic Divide.” Law & Society Review 45 (1): 69–102.
- Natividad, I. 2020, April 27th. Police Violence Makes Covid-19 Worse for Black Americans. Futurity. Accessed May 25th, 2020. https://www.futurity.org/police-violence-covid-19-2348242/.
- Nix, J., B. A. Campbell, E. H. Byers, and G. P. Alpert. 2017. “A Bird's eye View of Civilians Killed by Police in 2015: Further Evidence of Implicit Bias.” Criminology & Public Policy 16 (1): 309–340. doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12269.
- Olivarius, K. 2019. “Immunity, Capital, and Power in Antebellum New Orleans.” The American Historical Review 124 (2): 425–455.
- Olivarius, K. 2020, April 12th. The Dangerous History of Immunoprivilege. New York Times. Accessed August 16th, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/12/opinion/coronavirus-immunity-passports.html.
- Payne, B. K. 2001. “Prejudice and Perception: the Role of Automatic and Controlled Processes in Misperceiving a Weapon.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2): 181–192. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.2.181.
- Pizzi, W. T., I. V. Blair, and C. M. Judd. 2004. “Discrimination in Sentencing on the Basis of Afrocentric Features.” Michigan Journal of Race & Law 10: 327–354.
- Ruiz, N. G., J. M. Horowitz, and C. Tamir. 2020, July 1st. Many Black and Asian Americans Say They Have Experienced Discrimination Amid the COVID-19 Outbreak. Pew Research Center. Accessed October 11, 2020. https://www.pewsocialtrends.org/2020/07/01/many-black-and-asian-americans-say-they-have-experienced-discrimination-amid-the-covid-19-outbreak/.
- Smith, R. J., J. D. Levinson, and Z. Robinson. 2014. “Implicit White Favoritism in the Criminal Justice System.” Alabama Law Review 66: 871–925.
- Smith, J., and T. Linnemann. 2015. “Whiteness and Critical White Studies in Crime and Justice.” Contemporary Justice Review 18 (2): 101–104. doi:10.1080/10282580.2015.1023045.
- Southall, A. 2020, May 29th. Scrutiny of Social-Distance Policing as 35 of 40 Arrested Are Black. The New York Times. Accessed June 2, 2020. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/07/nyregion/nypd-social-distancing-race-coronavirus.html.
- Spohn, C. 2017. “Race and Sentencing Disparity.” Reforming Criminal Justice: A Report of the Academy for Justice on Bridging the Gap Between Scholarship and Reform 4: 169–186.
- Steffensmeier, D., J. Ulmer, and J. Kramer. 1998. “The Interaction of Race, Gender, and age in Criminal Sentencing: The Punishment Cost of Being Young, Black, and Male.” Criminology; An interdisciplinary Journal 36 (4): 763–798. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.1998.tb01265.x.
- Tessler, H., M. Choi, and G. Kao. 2020. “The Anxiety of Being Asian American: Hate Crimes and Negative Biases During the COVID-19 Pandemic.” American Journal of Criminal Justice 45: 1–11.
- Tolbert, J., J. Kates, and L. Levitt. 2020, May 4th. Lifting Social Distancing Measures in America: State Actions & Metrics. Kaiser Family Foundation. Accessed October 11, 2020. https://www.kff.org/policy-watch/lifting-social-distancing-measures-in-america-state-actions-metrics/.
- U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2019. Labor force characteristics by race and ethnicity, 2018. Accessed August 24th 2020. https://www.bls.gov/opub/reports/race-and ethnicity/2018/home.htm.
- U.S. Census Bureau. 2019. Population Estimates, July 1, 2019 (V2019) – New York City, NY [data table]. https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/newyorkcitynewyork?
- Walker, S. 2020, May 11th. Europe's marginalised Roma people hit hard by coronavirus. The Guardian. Accessed October 11, 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/11/europes-marginalised-roma-people-hit-hard-by-coronavirus.
- Wood, S. D., J. T. Jakubek Jr, and K. Kelly. 2015. “You've Got to Fight to be White: The Rural Foundation of the new Militia for Race Control.” Contemporary Justice Review 18 (2): 215–230. doi:10.1080/10282580.2015.1025633.
- Zuberi, T., and E. Bonilla-Silva, eds. 2008. White Logic, White Methods: Racism and Methodology. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.