The limited promise of interracial friendship: political partisanship moderates the association between having Black friends and anti-Black implicit bias

References

• Aberson, Christopher. 2019. “Friendships with Blacks Relate to Lessened Implicit Preferences for Whites Over Blacks.” Collabra: Psychology 5 (1): 16. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.195.
   Google Scholar
• Aberson, Christopher L., Carle Shoemaker, and Christina Tomolillo. 2004. “Implicit Bias and Contact: The Role of Interethnic Friendships.” The Journal of Social Psychology 144 (3): 335–347. https://doi.org/10.3200/SOCP.144.3.335-347.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allport, Gordon W. 1954. The Nature of Prejudice. Reading: Addison-Wesley.
   Google Scholar
• Barden, Jamie, William W. Maddux, Richard E. Petty, and Marilynn B. Brewer. 2004. “Contextual Moderation of Racial Bias: The Impact of Social Roles on Controlled and Automatically Activated Attitudes.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87 (1): 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.87.1.5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blalock, Hubert. 1967. Toward a Theory of Minority Group Relations. New York: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Burt, Ronald S. 1984. “Network Items and the General Social Survey.” Social Networks 6 (4): 293–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-8733(84)90007-8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carpenter, Thomas P., Ruth Pogacar, Chris Pullig, Michal Kouril, Stephen Aguilar, Jordan LaBouff, Naomi Isenberg, and Alek Chakroff. 2019. “Survey-Software Implicit Association Tests: A Methodological and Empirical Analysis.” Behavior Research Methods 51 (5): 2194–2208. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-019-01293-3.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chin, Mark J., David M. Quinn, Tasminda K. Dhaliwal, and Virginia S. Lovison. 2020. “Bias in the Air: A Nationwide Exploration of Teachers’ Implicit Racial Attitudes, Aggregate Bias, and Student Outcomes.” Educational Researcher 49 (8): 566–578. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20937240.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Houwer, Jan, Sarah Thomas, and Frank Baeyens. 2001. “Association Learning of Likes and Dislikes: A Review of 25 Years of Research on Human Evaluative Conditioning.” Psychological Bulletin 127 (6): 853–869. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.6.853.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• el-Nawawy, Mohammed, and Mohamad Elmasry. 2021. “White Supremacy on CNN and Fox: Ac 360 and Hannity Coverage of the Charlottesville ‘Unite the Right’ Rally.” Journalism Practice 17 (5): 948–969. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2021.1967187.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gawronski, Bertram, and Galen V. Bodenhausen. 2006. “Associative and Propositional Processes in Evaluation: An Integrative Review of Implicit and Explicit Attitude Change.” Psychological Bulletin 132 (5): 692–731. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.5.692.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graf, Sylvie, and Sabine Sczesny. 2019. “Intergroup Contact With Migrants Is Linked to Support for Migrants Through Attitudes, Especially in People Who Are Politically Right Wing.” International Journal of Intercultural Relations 73: 102–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2019.09.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, Alexander R., Dana R. Carney, Daniel J. Pallin, Long H. Ngo, Kristal L. Raymond, Lisa I. Iezzoni, and Mahzarin R. Banaji. 2007. “Implicit Bias among Physicians and its Prediction of Thrombolysis Decisions for Black and White Patients.” Journal of General Internal Medicine 22 (9): 1231–1238. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-007-0258-5.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald, Anthony G., and Linda Hamilton Krieger. 2006. “Implicit Bias: Scientific Foundations.” California Law Review 94 (4): 945–967. https://doi.org/10.2307/20439056.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenwald, Anthony G., Brian A. Nosek, and Mahzarin R. Banaji. 2003. “Understanding and Using the Implicit Association Test: I. An Improved Scoring Algorithm.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85 (2): 197–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henry, P. G., and Curtis Hardin. 2006. “The Contact Hypothesis Revisited.” Psychological Science 17 (10): 862–868. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01795.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Homola, Jonathan, and Margit Tavits. 2018. “Contact Reduces Immigration-Related Fears for Leftist but Not for Rightist Voters.” Comparative Political Studies 51 (13): 1789–1820. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414017740590.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacoby-Senghor, Drew S., Stacey Sinclair, and J. Nicole Shelton. 2016. “A Lesson in Bias: The Relationship Between Implicit Racial Bias and Performance in Pedagogical Contexts.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 63: 50–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2015.10.010.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jost, John T., Laurie Rudman, Irene V. Blair, Dana R. Carney, Nilanjana Dasgupta, Jack Glaser, and Chris Hardin. 2009. “The Existence of Implicit Bias is Beyond Reasonable Doubt: A Refutation of Ideological and Methodological Objections and Executive Summary of Ten Studies That No Manager Should Ignore.” Research in Organizational Behavior 29: 39–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2009.10.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karpinski, Andrew, and James L. Hilton. 2001. “Attitudes and the Implicit Association Test.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (5): 774–788. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.774.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunda, Ziva. 1990. “The Case for Motivated Reasoning.” Psychological Bulletin 108 (3): 480–498. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levin, Shana, Colette van Laar, and Jim Sidanius. 2003. “The Effects of Ingroup and Outgroup Friendships on Ethnic Attitudes in College: A Longitudinal Study.” Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 6 (1): 76–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430203006001013.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Livingston, Robert W., and Brian B. Drwecki. 2007. “Why Are Some Individuals Not Racially Biased? Susceptibility to Affective Conditioning Predicts Nonprejudice Toward Blacks.” Psychological Science 18 (9): 816–823. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01985.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lowery, Brian S., Curtis D. Hardin, and Stacey Sinclair. 2001. “Social Influence Effects on Automatic Racial Prejudice.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (5): 842–855. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.842.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maxwell, Angie, and Todd Shields. 2019. The Long Southern Strategy: How Chasing White Voters in the South Changed American Politics. New York: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Mitchell, Chris J., Nick E. Anderson, and Peter F. Lovibond. 2003. “Measuring Evaluative Conditioning Using the Implicit Association Test.” Learning and Motivation 34 (2): 203–217. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0023-9690(03)00003-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Munn, Christopher W. 2018. “The One Friend Rule: Race and Social Capital in an Interracial Network.” Social Problems 65 (4): 473–490. https://doi.org/10.1093/socpro/spx020.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nosek, Brian A., Anthony G. Greenwald, and Mahzarin R. Banaji. 2005. “Understanding and Using the Implicit Association Test: Ii. Method Variables and Construct Validity.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 31 (2): 166–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167204271418.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nosek, Brian A., Frederick L. Smyth, Jeffrey J. Hansen, Thierry Devos, Nicole M. Lindler, Kate A. Ranganath, Colin Tucker Smith, et al. 2007. “Pervasiveness and Correlates of Implicit Attitudes and Stereotypes.” European Review of Social Psychology 18 (1): 36–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280701489053.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olson, Michael A., and Russell H. Fazio. 2006. “Reducing Automatically Activated Racial Prejudice Through Implicit Evaluative Conditioning.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 32 (4): 421–433. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167205284004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearson-Merkowitz, Shanna, Alexandra Filindra, and Joshua J. Dyck. 2016. “When Partisans and Minorities Interact: Interpersonal Contact, Partisanship, and Public Opinion Preferences on Immigration Policy.” Social Science Quarterly 97 (2): 311–324. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26612319.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettigrew, Thomas F. 1998. “Intergroup Contact Theory.” Annual Review of Psychology 49 (1): 65–85. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.65.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettigrew, Thomas F., and Linda R. Tropp. 2006. “A Meta-Analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Theory.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90 (5): 751–783. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pettigrew, Thomas F., Linda R. Tropp, Ulrich Wagner, and Oliver Christ. 2011. “Recent Advances in Intergroup Contact Theory.” International Journal of Intercultural Relations 35 (3): 271–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.03.001.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pew Research Center. 2015. “A Deep Dive Into Party Affiliation: Sharp Differences by Race, Gender, Generation, Education.” https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2015/04/07/a-deep-dive-into-party-affiliation/.
   Google Scholar
• Pew Research Center. 2017. “The Partisan Divide on Political Values Grows Even Wider.” https://www.people-press.org/2017/10/05/8-partisan-animosity-personal-politics-views- of-trump/8_02/.
   Google Scholar
• Phillips, Stephen T., and Robert C. Ziller. 1997. “Toward a Theory and Measure of the Nature of Nonprejudice.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 72 (2): 420–434. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.420.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prestwich, Andrew, Jared B. Kenworthy, Michelle Wilson, and Natasha Kwan-Tat. 2008. “Differential Relations Between two Types of Contact and Implicit and Explicit Racial Attitudes.” British Journal of Social Psychology 47: 575–588. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466607X267470.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quillian, Lincoln. 2006. “New Approaches to Understanding Racial Prejudice and Discrimination.” Annual Review of Sociology 32 (1): 299–328. https://www.jstor.org/stable/29737741.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quillian, Lincoln. 2008. “Does Unconscious Racism Exist?” Social Psychology Quarterly 71 (1): 6–11. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20141814.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rachlinski, Jeffrey J., Sheri Lynn Johnson, Andrew J. Wistrich, and Chris Guthrie. 2009. “Does Unconscious Racial Bias Affect Trial Judges?” Notre Dame Law Review 84 (1): 1195–1246. https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/tndl84&div=31&id=&page=.
   Google Scholar
• Rowatt, Wade C., and Lewis M. Franklin. 2004. “Research: Christian Orthodoxy, Religious Fundamentalism, and Right-Wing Authoritarianism as Predictors of Implicit Racial Prejudice.” International Journal for the Psychology of Religion 14 (2): 125–138. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327582ijpr1402_4.
   Google Scholar
• Ryan, Timothy J., and Yanna Krupnikov. 2021. “Split Feelings: Understanding Implicit and Explicit Political Persuasion.” American Political Science Review 115 (4): 1424–1441. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055421000538.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shook, Natalie J., and Russell H. Fazio. 2008. “Interracial Roommate Relationships.” Psychological Science 19 (7): 717–723. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02147.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sides, John, Michael Tesler, and Lynn Vavreck. 2018. Identity Crisis: The 2016 Presidential Campaign and the Battle for the Meaning of America. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sinclair, Stacey, Brian S. Lowery, Curtis D. Hardin, and Anna Colangelo. 2005. “Social Tuning of Automatic Racial Attitudes: The Role of Affiliative Motivation.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 89 (4): 583–592. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.583.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tesler, Michael. 2013. “The Return of Old-Fashioned Racism to White Americans’ Partisan Preferences in the Early Obama Era.” The Journal of Politics 75 (1): 110–123. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381612000904.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tetlock, Philip E., and Gregory Mitchell. 2008. “Calibrating Prejudice in Milliseconds.” Social Psychology Quarterly 71 (1): 12–16. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20141815.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tetlock, Philip E., and Gregory Mitchell. 2009. “Implicit Bias and Accountability Systems: What Must Organizations do to Prevent Discrimination?” Research in Organizational Behavior 29: 3–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2009.10.002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomsen, Jens Peter Frølund, and Arzoo Rafiqi. 2019. “Intergroup Contact and its Right-Wing Ideological Constraint.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 45 (15): 2739–2757. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2018.1493915.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Trepagnier, Barbara. 2001. “Deconstructing Categories: The Exposure of Silent Racism.” Symbolic Interaction 24 (2): 141–163. https://doi.org/10.1525/si.2001.24.2.141.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, Rhiannon N., Miles Hewstone, and Alberto Voci. 2007. “Reducing Explicit and Implicit Outgroup Prejudice Via Direct and Extended Contact: The Mediating Role of Self-Disclosure and Intergroup Anxiety.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93 (3): 369–388. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.3.369.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, Rhiannon N., Gordon Hodson, and Kristof Dhont. 2020. “The Role of Individual Differences in Understanding and Enhancing Intergroup Contact.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 14 (6): 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12533.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walther, Eva, Benjamin Nagengast, and Claudia Trasselli. 2005. “Evaluative Conditioning in Social Psychology: Facts and Speculations.” Cognition and Emotion 19 (2): 175–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000274.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilcox, Jerry, and Wade Clark Roof. 1978. “Percent Black and Black-White Status Inequality: Southern Versus Northern Patterns.” Social Science Quarterly 59 (3): 421–434. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42860374.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wittenbrink, Bernd, Charles M. Judd, and Bernadette Park. 2001. “Spontaneous Prejudice in Context: Variability in Automatically Activated Attitudes.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (5): 815–827. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.815.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar