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Original Articles

From ethnocide to ethnodevelopment? Ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples in Southeast Asia

Pages 413-436 | Published online: 25 Aug 2010

References

  • Hettne , B . 1996 . “ 'Ethnicity and development: an elusive relationship' ” . In Ethnicity and Development: Geographical Perspectives , Edited by: Dwyer , D and Drakakis-Smith , D . 36 Chichester : John Wiley .
  • Smith , M . 1994 . Ethnic Groups in Burma: Development, Democracy and Human Rights , London : AntiSlavery Society . Smith notes that most estimates suggest that the dominant Burmans account for two-thirds of the population. Smith also notes, however, that Burman speakers are not a homogeneous group and include members of other established ethnic minorities. Government estimates of the membership of ethnic minorities also differ significantly from the estimates of ethnic minority representative political organisations
  • 1995 . Minorities in Cambodia , Minority Rights Group International Report 95/2 12 London : Minority Rights Group .
  • Brown , D . 1994 . The State and Ethnic Politics in Southeast Asia , 33 273 London : Routledge .
  • Hettne . “ 'Ethnicity and development' ” . 19
  • Quoted in Minorities in Cambodia, p. 11.
  • See ibid. p. 15.
  • Timor , East . 1997 . West Papua/Irian and Indonesia , 11 London : Minority Rights Group .
  • Deihl , C and Gordon , R . 1987 . "The forgotten refugees: the West Papuans of Irian Jaya' ” . In Southeast Asian Tribal Groups and Ethnic Minorities: Prospects for the 1980s and Beyond , 159 Cambridge , MA : Cultural Survival .
  • Sage , C L . 1996 . “ 'The search for sustainable livelihoods in Indonesian transmigration settlements' ” . In Environmental Change in South-East Asia: people, Politics and Sustainable Development , Edited by: Pamwell , M J G and Bryant , R J . 101 London : Routledge . During which time some two million people were moved.
  • Smith , M . 1989 . Burma: Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity , London : Zed Books .
  • Ibid.
  • Ibid.
  • Smith . Ethnic Groups in Burma 40 See Smith, Burma and Ethnic Groups in Burma. In 1987, for instance, the Kachin Independence Organisation claimed that over 33 000 civilian Kachins had been killed by government forces between 1961 and 1986
  • Bodley , J H . 1988 . Tribal Peoples and Development Issues , 137 – 140 . Mayfield , CA : Mountain View .
  • Hettne . “ 'Ethnicity and Development' ” . 22 – 24 .
  • Eccleston , B and Potter , D . “ 'Environmental NCOS and different political contexts in Southeast Asia: Malaysia, Indonesia and Vietnam' ” . In Environmental Change in South-East Asia Edited by: Parnwell and Bryant . 60
  • Broad , R and Cavanagh , J . 1993 . Plundering Paradise: The Struggle for the Environment in the Philippines , 25 – 31 . Berkeley , CA : University of California Press .
  • June 1998 . Common Ground , June , London : Philippine Resource Centre . Issue No 10
  • Salemink , O . “ 'The King of Fire and Vietnamese ethnic policy in the central highlands' ” . 105 – 115 .
  • Wandel , J . “ 'Development and its impact on the indigenous and highland peoples of Vietnam' ” . 470 – 487 .
  • McCaskill , D and Kempe , K , eds. 1997 . Development or Domestication? Indigenous Peoples of South-East Asia , Chiang , Mai : Silkworm Books .
  • Tapp , N and Wijeyewardene , G , eds. 1990 . “ 'Squatters or refugees: development and the Hmong' ” . In Ethnic Groups Across National Boundaries in Mainland Southeast Asia , 155 Singapore : Institute of Southeast Asian Studies .
  • Ibid, pp 156-157.
  • Chotichaipiboon , Tawin . “ 'Socio-cultural and environmental impact of economic development on hill tribes' ” . In Development or Domestication? Edited by: McCaskill and Kempe . 101 Hill tribes have been evicted from forest lands and forced to settle in nikhom, or resettlement villages, in efforts to protect forests. In the process, however, the livelihoods of the hill people concerned are seriously eroded
  • Rigg , J . 1997 . Southeast Asia: The Human Landscape of Modernization and Development , 119 London : Routledge .
  • Dirksen , H . “ 'Solving problems of opium production in Thailand: lessons learned from the ThaiGerman Highland Development Program' ” . In Development or Domestication? Edited by: McCaskill and Kempe . 329 – 330 .
  • See ibid, pp 333-334, note 5.
  • Salemink . “ 'The King of Fire' ” . 497 – 498 .
  • King , V T and Jawan , J A . "The !bans of Sarawak, Malaysia: ethnicity, marginalisation and development' ” . In Ethnicity and Development Edited by: Dwyer and Drakakis-Smith . 203 In Malaysia, for instance, it is impossible to assess how ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples have been affected by economic development in the 1980s and 1990s, as government statistics since 1980 do not differentiate between different ethnic groups
  • Rigg , J and Jemdal , R . “ 'Plenty in the context of scarcity' ” . In Environmental Change in South-East Asia Edited by: Parnwell and Bryant . 153 In Laos, in contrast, the ruling Pathet Lao distinguishes between three categories of population, Lao Loom (people who live in the lowlands), Lao Theung (people who live in the midlands or on mountain slopes) and Lao Soung (upland lao or those who live in the high mountains and engage in shifting cultivation), disguising ethnic categories such as Hmong or Tai. see
  • Molloy , M J and Payne , M . “ 'My way and the highway: ethnic people and development in the Lao PDR' ” . In Development or Domestication? Edited by: McCaskill and Kampe .
  • Brown . The State and Ethnic Politics in South-East Asia 33 273 In Burma, for instance a full census was last held in 1931 and official estimates of the population of the main ethnic minorities produced since then are unreliable. See
  • Stavenhagen , R . 1990 . The Ethnic Question: Conflicts, Development and Human Rights , Tokyo : United Nations University Press . ; and Hettne, 'Ethnicity and development'
  • Hettne , B . 1995 . Development Theory and Three Worlds , London : Longman . Elaborated in the work of E F Schumacher, the Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation, and Paul Ekins, as well as by Hettne himself. See, for example
  • Wandel . “ 'Development and its impact on the indigenous peoples' ” . 479
  • 1998 . Philippine Daily Inquirer , 25 November
  • Thongmak , S and Hulse , D L . 1993 . “ 'The winds of change: Karen people in harmony with world heritage' ” . In Indigenous Peoples and Protected Areas: The Law of Mother Earth , Edited by: Kemf , E . 163 – 164 . London : Earthscan . Covering 365 000 and 250 000 hectares respectively, these sanctuaries aie important refuges for the Karen yet government wildlife and forest conservation programmes in the sanctuaries have been criticised for their insensitivity to Karen interests, especially in condemning Karen swidden cultivation as environmentally destructive. WFT, however, is promoting greater environmental awareness and basic extension activities. see
  • Chotichaipiboon . “ 'Socio-cultural and environmental impact of development on hill tribes' ” . 110 – 114 .
  • Rood , S . 1998 . “ 'NCOS and indigenous peoples' ” . In Organising for Democracy: NCOS, Civil Society arid the Philippine State , Edited by: Silliman , G S and Noble , L Gamer . Honolulu , HI : University of Hawaii Press . On both the Chico River and Mt Apo campaigns, see
  • December 1999 . Vietnam: Attacking Poverty, Vietnam Development Development Report 2000 , December , 32 Hanoi : Joint Report of the Government of Vietnam-Donor-NGO Poverty Working Group . In 1993 the incidence of poverty among ethnic minorities/indigenous people was 86, compared with 54- among the Kinh. In 1998 it was 75 among the minorities compared to 31 among the Kinh
  • Minot , N . October 1998 . “ 'Generating disaggregated poverty maps: an application to Viet Nam' ” . Markets and Structural Studies Division (MSSD) Discussion Paper No 25 October , Washington, DC : International Food and Policy Research Institute .
  • Interview with Mr Vu Quang Dinh, Director, International Co-operation Department, Ms Ho Thi Thanh True, and Mr Ma Trung Ty, Committee for Ethnic Minorities and Mountainous Areas (CEMMA), Hanoi, 23 April 1998.
  • 1996 . The World Bank Participation Sourcebook , 103 – 108 . Washington, DC : World Bank . Planned NIPAS activities on the island of Mindoro for instance were scrapped following opposition from Mangyan groups. For an account of the NIPAS project planning process, see
  • Kwiatowski , L M . 1998 . Struggling with Development: The Politics of Hunger and Gender in the Philippines , Boulder , CO : Westview Press .
  • Ibid.
  • Rood , S . “ 'NCOS and indigenous peoples' ” . 152

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