Tradition, UMNO and political succession in Malaysia

References

• Lawson , Stephanie . 1996 . Tradition versus Democracy in the South Pacific: Fiji, Tonga and Western Samoa , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Hobsbawm , Eric and Ranger , Terence , eds. 1983 . The Invention of Tradition , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . Refer to
   Google Scholar
• Cohn , Bernard S . “ 'Representing authority in Victorian India' ” . 165 – 209 . The British in India manufactured an 'Indian' tradition as a superstructure integrating the indigenous communities and the colonial regime, most strikingly symbolised by the turbans and sashes worn by the English officers. It was a desire to induce unity in a diverse cultural cauldron rather than an attempt at community construction for the purpose of political control. Political control was exerted through the princes and chiefs of the various communities; Ibid
   Google Scholar
• Shils , Edward . 1981 . Tradition , 12 London : Faber & Faber .
   Google Scholar
• Wilkes , GA and Krebs , WA . 1982 . Collins Concise English Dictionary , 1241 Sydney : Collins .
   Google Scholar
• Sargent , Lyman Tower . 1981 . Contemporary Political Ideologies: A Comparative Analysis , 65 – 66 . Homewood , IL : Dorsey Press .
   Google Scholar
• Heywood , Andrew . 1994 . Political Ideas and Concepts: An Introduction , 287 – 289 . London : Macmillan .
   Google Scholar
• Stockwell , AJ . 1979 . British Policy and Malay Politics during the Malayan Union Experiment. 1942-1948 , Monograph No 8 Kuala Lumpur : Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society .
   Google Scholar
• Hock , Saw Swee . 1988 . The Population of Peninsula Malaysia , 65 Singapore : Singapore University Press . The ethnic breakdown of the population in 1957 was 49.8 Malay, 37.2 per cent Chinese, and 11.1 Indians
   Google Scholar
• Mauzy , Diane K . 1983 . Barisan Nasional: Coalition Government in Malaysia , Kuala Lumpur : Marican & Sons . For details, refer to
   Google Scholar
• Mosca , Gaetano . 1939 . The Ruling Class , 70 New York : MacGraw Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Funston , NJ . 1980 . Malay Politics in Malaysia: A Study of the United Malays National Organisation and Party Islam , Kuala Lumpur : Heinemann Educational Books . The origins Of PAS can be traced to the existence in 1948 of a religious caucus within UMNO which, from 1951 onwards, began to function as an independent entity. On the relationship between PAS and UMNO
   Google Scholar
• Pempel , TJ , ed. 1990 . Uncommon Democracies: The One-party Dominant Regimes , New York : Cornell University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Case , William . 1996 . UMNO paramountcy: a report on single-party dominance in Malaysia . Party Politics , 2 (1) : 115 – 127 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• 1962 . Malayan Constitutional Documents , 124 Kuala Lumpur : Government Press . The Federal Constitution of 1957 defined a Malay as one 'who professes the Muslim religion, habitually speaks the Malay language, conforms to Malay custom'
   Google Scholar
• Milner , AC . 1982 . Kerajaan: Malay Political Culture on the Eve of Colonial Rule , Tucson , AZ : University of Arizona Press . On Malay identity before the colonial impact, refer to
   Google Scholar
• Milner , AC . 1991 . 'Inventing politics: the case of Malaysia' . Past & Present , : 109 – 110 .
   Google Scholar
• Rush , Michael and Althoff , Philip . 1971 . An Introduction to Political Sociology , 63 – 68 . London : Thomas Nelson . This combination was reflected in the British policy of 'indirect rule'
   Google Scholar
• Emerson , Rupert . 1964 . Malaysia: A Study in Direct and Indirect Rule , Kuala Lumpur : University of Malaya Press .
   Google Scholar
• Singh , Hari . 1995 . 'UMNO leaders and Malay rulers: the erosion of a special relationship' . Pacific Affairs , 68 (2) : 189 – 191 .
   Google Scholar
• Muzaffar , Chandra . 1977 . Protector? An Analysis of the Concept and Practice of Loyalty in Leader-led Relationships within Malay Society , Penang : Aliran . The theme of absolute loyalty is brilliantly examined by
   Google Scholar
• Andaya , Barbara Watson and Matheson , Virginia . 1979 . “ 'Islamic thought and Malay tradition' ” . In Perceptions of the Past in Southeast Asia , Edited by: Reid , Anthony and Marr , David . 125 Singapore : Heinemann Educational Books . Other classics such as the Tuhfat al-Nafis and Thamarat al-Mahammah which questioned on religious grounds the moral right of a ruler to govern were not promoted by the state
   Google Scholar
• Maaruf , Dr Shaharuddin . 1988 . Malay Ideas on Development: From Feudal Lord to Capitalist , Singapore : Times Books International . Evidently, UMNO placed greater emphasis on Malay nationalism in exerting political control. PAS, an ultra nationalist party, used religion to legitimise its challenge to UMNO's authority. The effectiveness of the government's socialisation process can be seen from the role of Malay intellectuals condemning the Hikayat Abdullah on the grounds that Abdullah Munshi was a traitor to the Malay race. Abdullah, a reformist, was highly critical of Malay tradition; chapter 2
   Google Scholar
• Oakeshott , Michael . 1962 . Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays , 125 London : Methuen .
   Google Scholar
• Sartori , Giovanni . 1969 . 'Politics, ideology, and belief systems' . American Political Science Review , 63 (2) : 400
   Google Scholar
• Omar , Sharifah Maznah Syed . 1993 . Myths and the Malay Ruling Class , Singapore : Times Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gunnell . 1986 . Between Philosophy and Politics: The Alienation of Political Theory , 98 Amherst , MA : University of Massachusetts Press . As John Gunnell has pointed out, 'Part of what makes the myth of tradition a myth is not simply that many of its assumptions involved may be historically indefensible but that they are seldom if ever defended'
   Google Scholar
• Xenephon . 1994 . Memorabilia , Edited by: Bonnette , Amy L. Ithaca : Cornell University Press . chapter 5
   Google Scholar
• Kim , Khoo Kay . 1991 . Malay Society: Transformation & Democratisation , 20 Petaling Jaya : Pelanduk Publications . Malay history records only one case of a ruler being overthrown by the subject class
   Google Scholar
• Means , Gordon P . 1976 . Malaysian Politics , London : Hodder and Stoughton . Onn resigned before the UMNO Supreme Council could vote on his proposal to transform UMNO into a multiracial Organisation
   Google Scholar
• Means . Malaysian Politics 365 – 366 .
   Google Scholar
• Weber . 1947 . The Theory of Social and Economic Organization , 328 New York : Macmillan . Max Weber's classification of elites as traditional, rational-legal and charismatic is used in the analysis here
   Google Scholar
• Ott , Marvin C . 1972 . 'Foreign policy formulation in Malaysia' . Asian Survey , 12 (3) : 228
   Google Scholar
• Ishak , Aziz . 1977 . Special Guest: The Detention in Malaysia of an Ex-Cabinet Minister , Singapore : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• von Vorys , Karl . 1976 . Democracy without Consensus: Communalism and Political Stability in Malaysia , 171 – 183 . Kuala Lumpur : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Abdul Rahman Putra Al-Haj , Tunku . 1977 . Looking Back: Monday Musings and Memories , 193 – 94 . Kuala Lumpur : Pustaka Antara . The Tunku had intimated on various occasions that the 13 May 1969 incident was the climax of a series of efforts to oust him. See for instance
   Google Scholar
• Gullick , JM . 1988 . Indigenous Political Systems of Western Malaya , London : Athlone Press . On the power relationship between the sovereign and his chiefs in a traditional setting
   Google Scholar
• von Vorys . Democracy without Consensus 371 – 378 . The text of the famous letter and events leading to Mahathir's expulsion from UMNO can be found in; Assistant Minister Musa Hitam was also expelled for being 'found wanting in his loyalty'. Ibid, p. 380, Interestingly, both personalities were rehabilitated in the party soon after Tun Razak assumed the leadership of UMNO
   Google Scholar
• Milne , RS and Mauzy , Diane K . 1980 . Politics and Government in Malaysia , 95 Singapore : Times Books International . fn 1
   Google Scholar
• Tun Razak indicated his preference for the 'government team' for the vice-presidential posts in the 1975 general assembly elections. Ibid, p. 203.
   Google Scholar
• Crouch , Harold . 1980 . “ 'The UMNO crisis: 1975-1977' ” . In Malaysian Politics and the 1978 Election , Edited by: Crouch , Harold , Hing , Lee Kam and Ong , Michael . 16 – 20 . Kuala Lumpur : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• 1976 . Editorial . New Straits Times , 28 March Cited in Ibid, 34-35
   Google Scholar
• Milne and Mauzy . Politics and Government in Malaysia 401 – 403 . The line that the vote was more of a 'protest' than a serious challenge is articulated by most scholars
   Google Scholar
• Means , Gordon P . 1991 . Malaysian Politics: The Second Generation , 119 Singapore : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kershaw , Roger . 1989 . 'Within the family: the limits of doctrinal differentiation in the Malaysian ruling party election of 1987' . Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs , 23 (special issue) : 134 – 139 .
   Google Scholar
• Wilkinson , RJ . 1960 . Malay Beliefs , 79 London : Luzac and Company .
   Google Scholar
• Erasmus , Charles John . 1952 . 'The leader vs tradition: a case study' . American Anthropologist , 54 (2) : 173 The idea of bringing the kampung into a modern hotel is a valuable lesson in political psychology, It was meant to appeal to the subconscious of the Malay psyche conditioned by the values of a feudally-based social order; Part 1
   Google Scholar
• Shamsul , A B . 1988 . “ 'The "battle royal": the UMNO election of 1987' ” . In Southeast Asian Affairs 1988 , 170 – 88 . Singapore : Institute of Southeast Asian Affairs . The changing composition of UMNO delegates is well documented in
   Google Scholar
• Mohamad , Mahathir . 1970 . The Malay Dilemma , Singapore : Donald Moore for Asia Pacific Press . Refer to
   Google Scholar
• Teik , Khoo Boo . 1995 . Paradoxes of Mahathirism: An Intellectual Biography of Mahathir Mohamad , 108 Kuala Lumpur : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mehmet , Ozay . 1988 . Development in Malaysia: Poverty, Wealth and Trsuteeship , 135 – 137 . Kuala Lumpur : Insan . On distribution coalitions in UMNO politics
   Google Scholar
• Means . Malaysian Politics: The Second Generation 316
   Google Scholar
• Kim , Khoo Kay . Malay Society 20 Usually, the process of dethronement (which may involve regicide) occurs in the context of the incumbent's legitimacy to rule being questioned by a claimant from another ruling house or by one who would trace his lineage to the Malacca Sultanate. Refer to; Hussein's ascension to the UMN0 presidency upon the death of Razak in 1976 had resulted in the deputy presidency being vacant. Apparently, a gentleman's agreement was reached which involved Mahathir being appointed as the deputy president and Razaleigh moving up the ladder to that position when Hussein relinquished the presidency
   Google Scholar
• Singh , Hari . 1991 . 'Political change in Malaysia: the role of Semangat 46' . Asian Survey , 31 (8) : 712 – 28 . For details, refer to
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wriggins , W Howard . 1969 . The Ruler's Imperative: Strategies for Political Survival in Asia and Africa , vii New York : Columbia University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Singh , Hari and Narayanan , Suresh . 1989 . 'Changing dimensions in Malaysian politics: the Johore Baru by-election' . Asian Survey , 29 (5) : 514 – 529 . On the immediate post-1987 developments in UMNO, refer to
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pospisil , Leopold . 1967 . 'Legal levels and multiplicity of legal systems in human societies' . Journal of Conflict Resolution , 11 (1) : 2 – 26 .
   Google Scholar
• 1989 . Straits Times , 12 May : 1 and 29 December 1989, p. 1
   Google Scholar
• 1993 . Straits Times , 23 July : 3 Ghaffar decided not to defend his position given the inundation of nominations for his rival
   Google Scholar
• Mitton , Roger . 1995 . 'Power play' . Asiaweek , 20 October : 28
   Google Scholar
• 1995 . Sunday Times , 26 November : 1 Although UMNO tradition had discouraged challenges to the two premier positions in the party, it allowed democratic freedom especially with regard to branch and divisional-level nominations. In 1987, the leadership was to some extent caught off-guard when the scale of the challenge to the party leadership did not reflect the number of nominations for the challengers. Under UMNO Baru, every nomination for the incumbent president or his deputy entailed 10 bonus votes, Such a system, which clearly discouraged challenges to the leadership, was based on the deputy president's unwavering loyalty to his patron. Yet by 1995 it appeared that Mahathir's deputy, Anwar, would receive an avalanche of bonus votes as a result of nominations, and would thus displace Mahathir even before the actual vote took place--a parallel which could be found in Anwar's displacement of Ghaffar as deputy president in 1993
   Google Scholar
• Mohamad , Mahathir . The Malay Dilemma 113
   Google Scholar
• Singh, 'UMNO leaders and Malay rulers'.
   Google Scholar
• Lawson . Tradition versus Democracy in the South Pacific 11
   Google Scholar
• Singh , Hari . 1997 . 'The 1995 Malaysian general election: the reaffirmation of Barisan Nasional dominance' . The Round Table , : 389 – 409 .
   Google Scholar
• Mauzy . 1988 . 'Malaysia in 1987: decline of "the Malay Way" . Asian Survey , 28 (2) : 213 – 222 . Diane K Mauzy traces this development even earlier. See
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jung , Kim Dae . 1994 . 'Is culture destiny? The myth of Asia's anti-democratic values' . Foreign Affairs , 73 (6) : 189 – 194 . The idiom of 'Asian values' is already being used by both Mahathir and Anwar, the latter having published a book on the subject. See Anwar Ibrahim, The Asian Renaissance, Singapore: Times Books International, 1996. On 'Asian values' as an ideology of social control
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parsons , Talcott . 1961 . “ 'An outline of the social system' ” . In Theories of Society, Talcott Parsons , Edited by: Shils , Edward A , Naegele , Kaspar and Pitts , Jesse R . New York : Free Press .
   Google Scholar
• The , Geertz . 1973 . Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays , New York : Basic Books . The following analysis owes an intellectual debt to Clifford Geertz's interpretation of Balinese culture based on his observation of a cockfight; Chapter 15
   Google Scholar
• Rapoport , Anatol . 1969 . Two-Person Game Theory , 18 – 20 . Ann Arbor , MI : University of Michigan Press . This analogy is also to be found in 'Chicken' in the realm of game theory; Thus, while silat gayong may be a microcosmic reflection of Malay social behaviour, its uniqueness to a specific social system wanes as a result of its inherent universalistic values.
   Google Scholar
• Von Neumann , John and Morgenstern , Oscar . 1964 . Theory of Games and Economic Behaviour , Princeton , NJ : Princeton University Press . The rational choice being a 'minimax' strategy designed to avoid the state of ashes and charcoal
   Google Scholar
• Rapoport , Anatol and Chammah , Albert M . 1965 . Prisoner's Dilemma: A Study in Conflict and Cooperation , Ann Arbor , MI : University of Michigan Press . Once again a parallel can be found in game theory, namely, the 'Prisoner's Dilemma'
   Google Scholar