A ‘supply‐side’ aspect of the African slave trade: The cowrie production and exports of the MaldivesFootnote∗

Thanks are due to Mrs Marion Johnson of the University of Birmingham, my collaborator and mentor on all having to do with the cowrie; my assistants K. Dornish at Colby; J. Lynch of Colby at the PRO, Kew; F. Klinkenberg and J. Valkenberg, both of the University of Leiden, at the archives, The Hague; Julie Cannon and Ellen Thomson for the typing, and S. Stoddard at Colby for the proofreading.

Advice, encouragement, and assistance have been received from S. Arasaratnam of the University of New England, Pieter Emmer and Femme Gaastra of the University of Leiden, Henry Gemery of Colby College, Kristof Glamann of the Carlsbergfondet, James Heimann of Copenhagen University, and Paul Lovejoy of York University. John Richards of Duke University made it possible to push the writing along at a faster pace through his invitation to deliver the paper at the Mughal India Monetary Conference, Duke University, June 3–5, 1981. John Willis of Princeton University provided the final impetus for putting the paper in publishable form.

Notes

• Johnson , Marion . 1970 . ‘The Cowrie Currencies of West Africa,’ Part I and II . Journal of African History , XI ( 1 ) : 17 – 49 . and Vol. XI, No. 3, 1970, pp. 331–353
   Google Scholar
• Lovejoy , Paul E. 1974 . ‘Interregional Monetary Flows in the Pre‐colonial Trade of Nigeria,’ . Journal of African History , XV ( 4 ) : 563 – 585 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hopkins , A.G. 1973 . An Economic History of West Africa New York
   Google Scholar
• 1966 . ‘The Currency Revolution in South‐West Nigeria in the Late Nineteenth Century,’ . Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria , III ( 3 ) : 471 – 483 .
   Google Scholar
• Hogendorn , J.S. and Gemery , H.A. 1981 . “ ‘Abolition and Its Impact on African Monies Imported to West Africa,’ ” . In The Slave Trade and Abolition Edited by: Eltis , David and Walvin , James . Madison
   Google Scholar
• ‘From Traditional to British Currency in Southern Nigeria: Analysis of a Currency Revolution, 1880–1948,’ . Journal of Economic History , XXXIX ( 3 ) 623 – 654 .
   Google Scholar
• Hopkins . Economic History , 68
   Google Scholar
• Bosnian , William . 1705 . A New and Accurate Description of the Coast of Guinea... 364a London
   Google Scholar
• Johnson . ‘Cowrie Currency,’ . 348 Part I, p.21, and Part II
   Google Scholar
• Johnson . 1976 . “ ‘The Atlantic Slave Trade and the Economy of West Africa,’ ” . In Liverpool, the African Slave Trade, and Abolition Edited by: Anstey , Roger and Hair , P. E. H. 20 Bristol
   Google Scholar
• Dapper , O. 1686 . Description de l'Afrique 305 Amsterdam
   Google Scholar
• Jones , G. I. 1958 . ‘Native and Trade Currencies in Southern Nigeria during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries,’ . Africa , 28 : 50
   Google Scholar
• Davies , K.G. 1970 . The Royal African Company 234 New York
   Google Scholar
• Lovejoy . ‘Monetary Flows,’ . 563 – 585 .
   Google Scholar
• Johnson . ‘Cowrie Currency,’ . 22 – 23 . Part I
   Google Scholar
• Hopkins . ‘Currency Revolution,’ . 471 – 483 .
   Google Scholar
• Curtin . ‘Monetary World,’ . 18
   Google Scholar
• 1980 . South Asia , 111 ( 1 ) : 48 – 69 .
   Google Scholar
• Wilfrid Jackson , J. 1917 . Shells as Evidence of the Migrations of Early Culture Manchester and London
   Google Scholar
• Einzig , Paul . 1949 . Primitive Money London
   Google Scholar
• Schneider , Oskar . 1905 . Muschelgeld‐Studien 102 Dresden
   Google Scholar
• Foa , Edouard . 1895 . Le Dahomey 147 Paris
   Google Scholar
• Heimann , James . 1979 . ‘Small Change and Ballast: Cowry Trade and Usage as an Example of Indian Ocean Economic History,’ . paper delivered at the International Conference on Indian Ocean Studies . August 1979 , Perth, Australia. pp. 1
   Google Scholar
• 1925 . ‘Excerpta Maldiviana: No.4, A Description of the Maldive Islands circa A.C. 1683,’ . Journal of the R.A.S. (Ceylon) , XXX ( 78 ) : 139
   Google Scholar
• Forbes , Andrew D.W. 1980 . ‘Archives and Resources for Maldivian History,’ . South Asia , 111 ( 1 ) : 70 – 82 .
   Google Scholar
• Stanley Gardiner , J. , ed. 1903 . The Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes vol. 1 , Cambridge vol.2, 1906;
   Google Scholar
• Rosset , C. W. 1886 . ‘The Maldive Islands,’ . The Graphic , October 16 : 413 – 416 .
   Google Scholar
• 1887 . ‘On the Maldive Islands,’ . Journal of the Anthropological Institute , 16 : 164 – 174 .
   Google Scholar
• Bell , H. C. P. 1883 . The Maldive Islands: An Account of the Physical Features, Climate, History, Inhabitants, Productions, and Trade Colombo
   Google Scholar
• Gray , Albert and Bell , H. C. P. , eds. 1887, 1890 . The Voyage of François Pyrard of Laval to the East Indies, the Maldives, the Moluccas, and Brazil 2 vols. , London
   Google Scholar
• Schneider . Muschelgeld‐Studien , 102
   Google Scholar
• von Martens , E. 1872 . “ ‘Ueber verschiedene Verwen‐dungen von Conchylien,’ ” . In Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 65 Berlin
   Google Scholar
• Labouret , Henri . 1953 . “ ‘L'échange et le commerce dans les archipels du Pacifique et en Afrique tropicale,’ ” . In Histoire du commerce Edited by: Lacour‐Gayet , Jacques . Vol. Tome III , 108 Paris Le commerce extra‐Européen jusqu'aux temps modernes
   Google Scholar
• Gentleman , Dutch . 1754 . Voyage to the Island of Ceylon on Board a Dutch Indiaman in the Year 1747 21 London
   Google Scholar
• Slimming , David and Jarrett , Alan . 1970 . The Cowries of Seychelles 9 – 11 . London
   Google Scholar
• Hiskett , M. 1966 . ‘Materials Relating to the Cowry Currency of the Western Sudan, II,’ . Bulletin of SOAS , XXIX part 2
   Google Scholar
• Bell . Maldive Islands , 24
   Google Scholar
• Yule , Henry and Burnell , A. C. 1968 . Hobson‐Jobson 270 London
   Google Scholar
• Heimann . ‘Small Change,’ . 2
   Google Scholar
• Yule and Burnell . Hobson‐Jobson , 270
   Google Scholar
• Bell . Maldive Islands , 24
   Google Scholar
• Schneider . Muschelgeld , 110
   Google Scholar
• Yule and Bumell . Hobson‐Jobson , 270
   Google Scholar
• De Fremery , C. and Sanguinetti , B.R. , eds. 1853–1858 . Voyages d'Ibn Batoutah vol. IV , 122 Paris
   Google Scholar
• Bell . Maldive Islands , 24 – 25 . 117
   Google Scholar
• Yule and Bumell . Hobson‐Jobson , 269 – 270 .
   Google Scholar
• Heimann . ‘Small Change,’ . 1 – 3 .
   Google Scholar
• Beal , S. , ed. 1969 . Travels of Fah‐Hian 55 London
   Google Scholar
• Hirth , F. and Rockhill , W. , eds. 1911 . Chau Ju‐Kua 113 St. Petersburg
   Google Scholar
• Von Martens . ‘Verwendungen,’ . 66
   Google Scholar
• Foa . Le Dahomey , 148
   Google Scholar
• Johnson , Marion . 1970 . ‘The Cowrie Currencies of West Africa,’ . Journal of African History , XI ( 1 ) : 17 – 49 . part I
   Google Scholar
• Yule and Burnell . Hobson‐Jobson , 270
   Google Scholar
• Rosset , C. W. 1887 . ‘On the Maldive Islands,’ . Journal of the Anthropological Institute , 16 : 170 173
   Google Scholar
• Schneider . Muschelgeld , 112
   Google Scholar
• Yule and Burnell . Hobson‐Jobson , 270
   Google Scholar
• Rosset . ‘On the Maldive Islands,’ . 166 – 167 .
   Google Scholar
• Heimann . ‘Small Change,’ . 3–4
   Google Scholar
• Hamilton . 1930 . A New Account of the East Indies Edited by: Foster , Sir William . 192 London
   Google Scholar
• Foa . Le Dahomey , 147
   Google Scholar
• Bell . Maldive Islands , 87
   Google Scholar
• Foa . Le Dahomey , 147
   Google Scholar
• Prévôt . 1780 . Histoire Générale des Voyages 82 Paris (Abrégé de)
   Google Scholar
• Owen , Captain W.F.W. 1832 . ‘On the Same Subject’ [The Geography of the Maldiva Islands] . Journal of the Royal Geographical Society , II : 82 – 83 .
   Google Scholar
• Hertz , John E. 1881 . “ ‘Ueber Verwendung und Verbreitung der Kauriemuschel,’ ” . In Mitteilung der Geographische Gesellschaft in Hamburg 25 Hamburg
   Google Scholar
• Rifles , Ceylon . 1876 . Ceylon 418 London
   Google Scholar
• Marshall , John . 1927 . “ Notes and Observations of East India ” . In John Marshall in India Edited by: Khan , S. A. 416 London
   Google Scholar
• Hamilton . East Indies , 192
   Google Scholar
• Bell . Maldive Islands , 87
   Google Scholar
• Owen . ‘Geography of the Maldiva Islands,’ . 83
   Google Scholar
• Bell , H.C.P. 1925 . ‘Excerpta Maldiviana: No.4. A Description of the Maldive Islands circa A.C. 1683,’ . Journal of the R.A.S. (Ceylon) , XXX ( 78 ) : 135
   Google Scholar
• 1887 . The Diary of William Hedges, Esq., 1681–1687 vol. I , 192 London
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Description,’ . 135
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Maldive Islands,’ . 87
   Google Scholar
• Hamilton . East Indies , 192
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Maldive Islands,’ . 102
   Google Scholar
• Heber , Reginald . 1828 . Narrative of a Journey through the Upper Provinces of India from Calcutta to Bombay, 1824–1825 3 19 – 20 . London
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Maldive Islands,’ . 102
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Description,’ . 135
   Google Scholar
• Heimann . ‘Small Change,’ . 2
   Google Scholar
• Fitzler , M. A. H. 1935–1936 . ‘Die Maldiven im 16. und 17. Jahrhundert,’ . Zeitschrift für Indologie und Iranstik , 10 : 223 – 225 . 227
   Google Scholar
• Bell , H.C.P. 1932 . ‘Excerpta Maldiviana. No. 11. Dutch Intercourse with the Maldives: Seventeenth Century,’ . Journal of the R.A.S. (Ceylon) , XXXII ( 85 ) : 235 – 236 .
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Description,’ . 135
   Google Scholar
• Hedges . Diary , I 192
   Google Scholar
• Philalethes . 1750 . The Boscawen's Voyage to Bombay , : 52
   Google Scholar
• Yule and Burnell . Hobson‐Jobson , 271
   Google Scholar
• Prévôt . Histoire , 82
   Google Scholar
• Hertz . 1881 . “ ‘Ueber Verwendung und Verbreitung der Kauriemuschel,’ ” . In Mitteilung der Geographische Gesellschaft in Hamburg 14 – 15 . Hamburg
   Google Scholar
• Rosset . ‘On the Maldive Islands,’ . 166 – 167 .
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Maldive Islands,’ . 26
   Google Scholar
• Correa , Gaspar . 1858–1864 . Lendas da India Vol. I , 341 Lisbon i
   Google Scholar
• Yule and Burnell . Hobson‐Jobson , 270
   Google Scholar
• Hedges . Diary , I 95
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Maldive Islands,’ . 102
   Google Scholar
• Bowrey , Thomas . 1905 . A Geographical Account of the Countries Round the Bay of Bengal, 1669 to 1679 152 Cambridge
   Google Scholar
• Hedges . Diary , III cxciv
   Google Scholar
• Bowrey . Bay of Bengal , 183
   Google Scholar
• Hamilton . East Indies , 217 – 218 .
   Google Scholar
• Bowrey . Bay of Bengal , 162
   Google Scholar
• Bhattacharya , Sukumar . 1954 . The East India Company and the Economy of Bengal 124 189 London
   Google Scholar
• Bowrey . Bay of Bengal , 179
   Google Scholar
• Prakash , Om . 1963/1964 . ‘The European Trading Companies and the Merchants of Bengal, 1650–1725,’ . Indian Social and Economic History Review , 1 ( 3 ) : 38 – 45 .
   Google Scholar
• Marshall . East India , 419
   Google Scholar
• Bowrey . Bay of Bengal , 219
   Google Scholar
• Bhattacharya . Economy of Bengal , 86 89 124
   Google Scholar
• Hamilton . East Indies , 218
   Google Scholar
• Prakash . ‘European Trading Companies,’ . 54 – 55 .
   Google Scholar
• Correa . Lendas , I 341 – 342 .
   Google Scholar
• Bell , H. C. P. 1931 . ‘Excerpta Maldiviana: No. 10. The Portuguese at the Maldives,’ . Journal of the R.A.S. (Ceylon) , XXXII ( 84 ) : 78 – 79 .
   Google Scholar
• Fitzler . ‘Die Maldiven,’ . 219
   Google Scholar
• Heimann . ‘Small Change,’ . 4
   Google Scholar
• Fitzler . ‘Die Maldiven,’ . 249 – 256 .
   Google Scholar
• Ryder , A.F.C. 1959 . ‘An Early Portuguese Trading Voyage to the Forcados River,’ . Joumal of the Historical Society of Nigeria , I ( 4 ) December : 301ff
   Google Scholar
• Johnson , Marion . 1970 . ‘The Cowrie Currencies of West Africa,’ . Journal of African History , XI ( 1 ) : 18 – 19 . Part I
   Google Scholar
• Ryder , Alan . 1977 . Benin and the Europeans, 1485–1897 61 – 63 . London
   Google Scholar
• Fitzler . ‘Die Maldiven,’ . 235
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Portuguese at the Maldives,’ . 80 – 82 . 88 – 91 . 95 – 96 .
   Google Scholar
• Schneider . Muschelgeld , 121
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Portuguese at the Maldives,’ . 111
   Google Scholar
• Fry , H.T. 1967 . The Mariner's Mirror , 53 ( 4 ) November
   Google Scholar
• HMS . Cato , 50
   Google Scholar
• Hedges . Diary , 192
   Google Scholar
• Prakash . ‘European Trading Companies,’ . 62
   Google Scholar
• Bowrey , Thomas . 1927 . The Papers of Thomas Bowrey , Edited by: Temple , R.C. 219 – 228 . London : Hakluyt Society .
   Google Scholar
• Yule and Burnell . Hobson‐Jobson , 217
   Google Scholar
• Sinha , Narenda K. The Economic History of Bengal , I 52
   Google Scholar
• Heimann . ‘Small Change,’ . 7
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Description,’ . 138
   Google Scholar
• Horsburgh , James . 1832 . ‘Some Remarks Relative to the Geography of the Maldiva Islands, and the Navigable Channels (at present known to Europeans) which Separate the Atolls from Each Other,’ . Journal of the Royal Geographical Society , II : 72 – 80 .
   Google Scholar
• Hogendorn , J. S. and Gemery , H. A. 1981 . “ ‘Abolition and Its Impact on Monies Imported to West Africa,’ ” . In The Slave Trade and Abolition Edited by: Eltis , David and Walvin , James . Madison
   Google Scholar
• Boxer , C. R. 1973 . The Dutch Seaborne Empire 1600–1800 26 197 Hannondsworth
   Google Scholar
• Glamann , Kristof . 1958 . Dutch‐Asiatic Trade 1620–1740 22 – 23 . 123 Copenhagen and the Hague
   Google Scholar
• Bell , H.C.P. 1932 . ‘Excerpta Maldiviana, No. 11. Dutch Intercourse with the Maldives: Seventeenth Century,‘ . Joumal of the R.A.S. (Ceylon) , XXXII ( 85 ) : 228
   Google Scholar
• Arasaratnam , Sinnappah . 1958 . Dutch Power in Ceylon 1658–1687 209 Amsterdam
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Maldive Islands,’ . 98
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Maldive Islands,’ . 99
   Google Scholar
• Hockly , T.W. 1935 . The Two Thousand Isles: A Short Account of the People, History and Customs of the Maldive Archipelago 75 London
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Maldive Islands,’ . 99
   Google Scholar
• Pierre Ricard , Jean . 1723 . Le Négoce d'Amsterdam 382 Rouen
   Google Scholar
• ‘Dutch Gentleman,’ . Voyage , 22
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Maldive Islands,’ . 101
   Google Scholar
• Hedges . Diary , I 89
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Maldive Islands,’ . 99 101
   Google Scholar
• Heimann . ‘Small Change,’ . 6 – 7 .
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Maldive Islands,’ . 31
   Google Scholar
• Beckmann , J. 1793 . Vorbereitung zur Waarenkunde 361 Göttingen
   Google Scholar
• Glamann , Kristof . 1958 . Dutch‐Asiatic Trade 1620–1740 25 Copenhagen and the Hague
   Google Scholar
• Weyers , Don . October 1978 . Opdracht 14 VOC 2304/KA 2196 , October , University of Leiden . Typescript
   Google Scholar
• Heimann . ‘Small Change,’ . 5
   Google Scholar
• Johnson . ‘Cowrie Currencies,’ . 20 Part I
   Google Scholar
• Furber , Holden . 1948 . John Company at Work 289 Cambridge
   Google Scholar
• 1929 . The Book of Sir Marco Polo vol. II , 74 London
   Google Scholar
• Johnson . ‘Cowrie Currencies,’ . 22 – 23 . Part I
   Google Scholar
• Hertz , John E. 1881 . “ ‘Ueber Verwendung und Verbreitung der Kauriemuschel,’ ” . In Mitteilung der Geographische Gesellschaft in Hamburg Hamburg
   Google Scholar
• Bell . ‘Maldive Islands,’ . 104
   Google Scholar
• Hertz . ‘Kauriemuschel,’ . 15ff
   Google Scholar
• Johnson . ‘Cowrie Currencies,’ . 23 Part I
   Google Scholar
• Heimann . ‘Small Change,’ . 7
   Google Scholar
• Thanks are due to Mrs Marion Johnson of the University of Birmingham, my collaborator and mentor on all having to do with the cowrie; my assistants K. Dornish at Colby; J. Lynch of Colby at the PRO, Kew; F. Klinkenberg and J. Valkenberg, both of the University of Leiden, at the archives, The Hague; Julie Cannon and Ellen Thomson for the typing, and S. Stoddard at Colby for the proofreading. Advice, encouragement, and assistance have been received from S. Arasaratnam of the University of New England, Pieter Emmer and Femme Gaastra of the University of Leiden, Henry Gemery of Colby College, Kristof Glamann of the Carlsbergfondet, James Heimann of Copenhagen University, and Paul Lovejoy of York University. John Richards of Duke University made it possible to push the writing along at a faster pace through his invitation to deliver the paper at the Mughal India Monetary Conference, Duke University, June 3–5, 1981. John Willis of Princeton University provided the final impetus for putting the paper in publishable form.
   Google Scholar
• Department of Economics, Colby College.
   Google Scholar