Comforting Apprehensive Communicators: The Effects of Reappraisal and Distraction on Cortisol Levels Among Students in a Public Speaking Class

References

• Adler , R. B. ( 1980 ). Integrating reticence management into the basic communication curriculum . Communication Education , 29 , 215 – 221 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andrews , J. , Wadiwalla , M. , Juster , R. P. , Lord , C. , Lupien , S. J. , & Pruessner , J. C. ( 2007 ). Effects of manipulating the amount of social-evaluative threat on the cortisol stress response in young healthy men . Behavioral Neuroscience , 121 , 871 – 876 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayres , J. , & Hopf , T. ( 1990 ). The long-term effect of visualization in the classroom: A brief research report . Communication Education , 39 , 75 – 78 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ayres , J. , & Hopf , T. ( 1992 ). Visualization: Reducing speech anxiety and enhancing performance . Communication Reports , 5 , 1 – 10 .
   Google Scholar
• Ayres , J. , Hopf , T. , & Edwards , P. A. ( 1999 ). Vividness and control: Factors in the effectiveness of performance visualization? Communication Education , 48 , 287 – 293 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baum , A. , & Grunberg , N. ( 1995 ). Measurement of stress hormones . In S. Cohen , R. C. Kessler , & L. Underwood-Gordon (Eds.), Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 175–192) . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Beatty , M. J. ( 1988 ). Situational and predispositional correlates of public speaking anxiety . Communication Education , 37 , 28 – 39 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beatty , M. J. , & Friedland , M. H. ( 1990 ). Public speaking state anxiety as a function of selected situational and predispositional variables . Communication Education , 39 , 142 – 147 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beatty , M. J. , McCroskey , J. C. , & Heisel , A. D. ( 1998 ). Communication apprehension as temperamental expression: A communibiological paradigm . Communication Monographs , 63 , 197 – 219 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beatty , M. J. , & Valencic , K. M. ( 2000 ). Context-based apprehension versus planning demands: A communibiological analysis of anticipatory public speaking anxiety . Communication Education , 49 , 58 – 71 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bernard , C. ( 1961 ). An introduction to the study of experimental medicine (H. C. Greene, Trans.) . New York : Collier. (Original work published 1865) .
   Google Scholar
• Biondi , M. , & Picardi , A. ( 1999 ). Psychological stress and neuroendocrine function in humans: The last two decades of research . Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics , 68 , 114 – 150 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Borkovec , T. D. , Robinson , E. , Pruzinsky , T. , & DePree , J. A. ( 1983 ). Preliminary exploration of worry: Some characteristics and processes . Behavior Research and Therapy , 21 , 9 – 16 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burleson , B. R. ( 1985 ). The production of comforting messages: Social-cognitive foundations . Journal of Language and Social Psychology , 4 , 253 – 273 .
   Google Scholar
• Burleson , B. R. ( 1994 ). Friendship and similarities in social-cognitive and communication abilities: Social skill bases of interpersonal attraction in childhood . Personal Relationships , 1 , 371 – 389 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burleson , B. R. , & Goldsmith , D. J. ( 1998 ). How the comforting process works: Alleviating emotional distress through conversationally induced reappraisals . In P. A. Andersen & L. K. Guerrero (Eds.), Communication and emotion (pp. 246 – 275 ). Orlando , FL : Academic .
   Google Scholar
• Burleson , B. R. , & Samter , W. E. ( 1985 ). Consistencies in theoretical and naïve evaluations of comforting messages . Communication Monographs , 52 , 103 – 123 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cannon , W. B. ( 1929 ). Bodily changes in pain, hunger, fear, and rage , (2nd ed.) . New York : Appleton .
   Google Scholar
• Chrousos , G. , & Gold , P. ( 1992 ). The concepts of stress and stress system disorders . Journal of the American Medical Association , 267 , 1244 – 1252 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , S. , Kessler , R. C. , & Underwood-Gordon , L. (Eds.). (1995). Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists . New York : Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Daly , J. A. , Vangelisti , A. L. , & Lawrence , S. G. ( 1989 ). Self-focused attention and public speaking anxiety . Personality and Individual Differences , 10 , 903 – 913 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dewe , P. J. , & Guest , D. E. ( 1990 ). Methods of coping with stress at work: A conceptual analysis and empirical study of measurement issues . Journal of Organizational Behavior , 11 , 135 – 150 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dickerson , S. S. , & Kemeny , M. E. ( 2004 ). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research . Psychological Bulletin , 130 , 355 – 391 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Erdfelder , E. , Faul , F. , & Buchner , A. ( 1996 ). GPOWER: A general power analysis program . Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers , 28 , 1 – 11 .
   Google Scholar
• Fibiger , W. , Evans , O. , & Singer , G. ( 1986 ). Hormonal responses to a graded mental workload . European Journal of Applied Physiology , 55 , 339 – 343 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Folkman , S. , & Lazarus , R. S. ( 1988 ). Coping as a mediator of emotion . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 54 , 466 – 475 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frijda , N. H. ( 1986 ). The emotions . New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Garnefski , N. , Boon , S. , & Kraaij , V. ( 2003 ). Relationships between cognitive strategies of adolescents and depressive symptomatology across different types of life event . Journal of Youth and Adolescence , 32 , 401 – 408 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heinrichs , M. , Baumgartner , T. , Kirschbaum , C. , & Ehlert , U. ( 2003 ). Social support and oxytocin interact to suppress cortisol and subjective responses to psychosocial stress . Biological Psychiatry , 54 , 1389 – 1398 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hinrichsen , H. , & Clark , D. M. ( 2002 ). Anticipatory processing in social anxiety: Two pilot studies . Journal of Behavioral Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry , 34 , 205 – 218 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones , S. M. , & Burleson , B. R. ( 1997 ). The impact of situational variables on helpers' perceptions of comforting messages: An attributional analysis . Communication Research , 24 , 530 – 555 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keicolt-Glaser , J. K. , Glaser , R. , Gravenstein , S. , Malarkey , W. B. , & Sheridan , J. ( 1996 ). Chronic stress alters immune response to influenza virus vaccine in older adults . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA , 93 , 3043 – 3047 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirschbaum , C. , & Hellhammer , D. H. ( 1989 ). Salivary cortisol in psychobiological research: An overview . Neuropsychobiology , 22 , 150 – 169 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirschbaum , C. , Hellhammer , D. H. , & Strasburger , C. J. ( 1989 ). Psychoendocrinological and psychophysiological response patterns to experimental stress in children . In H. Weiner , I. Florin , R. Mursion , & D. H. Hellhammer (Eds.), Frontiers in stress research (pp. 383 – 387 ). Toronto : Huber .
   Google Scholar
• Kirschbaum , C. , Klauer , T. , Filipp , S. , & Hellhammer , D. H. ( 1995 ). Sex-specific effects of social support on cortisol and subjective responses to acute psychological stress . Psychosomatic Medicine , 57 , 23 – 31 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kunkel , A. W. , & Burleson , B. R. ( 1999 ). Assessing explanations for sex differences in emotional support: A test of different cultures and skill specialization accounts . Human Communication Research , 25 , 307 – 340 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus , R. S. ( 1991 ). Emotion and adaptation . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lequin , R. M. ( 2005 ). Enzyme immunoassay (EIA) enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (ELISA) . Clinical Chemistry , 51 , 2415 – 2418 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levine , T. R. , & McCroskey , J. C. ( 1990 ). Measuring trait communication apprehension: A test of rival measurement models of the PRCA–24 . Communication Monographs , 57 , 62 – 72 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lovallo , W. R. , & Thomas , T. L. ( 2000 ). Stress hormones in psychophysiological research: Emotional, behavioral, and cognitive implications . In J. T. Cacioppo , L. Tassinary , & G. G. Berntson , (Eds.), Handbook of psychophysiology ( , 2nd ed. , pp. 342 – 367 ). New York : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lucas , S. E. ( 2004 ). The art of public speaking , (8th ed.) . New York : McGraw-Hill Higher Education .
   Google Scholar
• Mattlin , J. A. , Wethington , E. , & Kessler , D. C. ( 1990 ). Situational determinants of coping and coping effectiveness . Journal of Health and Social Behavior , 31 , 103 – 122 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCroskey , J. C. (1977). Oral communication apprehension: A summary of recent theory and research. Human Communication Research , 4, 78–96.
   Google Scholar
• McCroskey , J. C. , & Anderson , J. F. ( 1976 ). The relationship between communication apprehension and academic achievement among college students . Human Communication Research , 3 , 73 – 81 .
   Google Scholar
• McCroskey , J. C. , & Beatty , M. J. ( 2000 ). The communibiological perspective: Implications for communication in instruction . Communication Education , 49 , 1 – 6 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCroskey , J. C. , & Leppard , T. ( 1975, May ). The effects of communication apprehension on nonverbal behavior . Paper presented at the annual convention of the Eastern Communication Association, New York .
   Google Scholar
• McEwen , B. S. ( 1999 ). Lifelong effects of hormones on brain development: Relationship to health and disease . In L. A. Schmidt & J. Schulkin (Eds.), Extreme fear, shyness, and social phobia: Origins, biological mechanisms, and clinical outcomes (pp. 173–192) . New York : Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• O'Hair , D. , Stewart , R. , & Rubenstein , H. ( 2004 ). A pocket guide to public speaking . New York : Bedford/St. Martin's Press .
   Google Scholar
• Padgett , D. A. , & Glaser , R. ( 2003 ). How stress influences the immune response . Trends in Immunology , 8 , 444 – 448 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powers , S. I. , Pietromonaco , P. R. , Gunlicks , M. , & Sayer , A. ( 2006 ). Dating couples' attachment styles and patterns of cortisol reactivity and recovery in response to a relationship conflict . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 90 , 613 – 628 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts , J. B. , Sawyer , C. R. , & Behnke , R. R. ( 2004 ). A neurological representation of speech state anxiety: Mapping salivary cortisol levels of public speakers . Western Journal of Communication , 68 , 219 .
   Google Scholar
• Robinson , T. E. ( 1996 ). Communication apprehension and the basic public speaking course: A national survey of in-class treatment techniques . Communication Education , 46 , 188 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ross , L. , Rodin , J. , & Zimbardo , P. G. ( 1969 ). Toward an attribution therapy: The reduction of fear through induced cognitive–emotional misattribution . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 12 , 279 – 288 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy , M. P. , Steptoe , A. , & Kirschbaum , C. ( 1998 ). Life events and social support as moderators of individual differences in cardiovascular and cortisol reactivity . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 75 , 1273 – 1281 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samter , W. ( 2002 ). How gender and cognitive complexity influence the provision of emotional support: A study of indirect effects . Communication Reports , 15 , 5 – 16 .
   Google Scholar
• Sapolsky , R. M. ( 1998 ). Why zebras don't get ulcers: An updated guide to stress, stress-related diseases, and coping . New York : Freeman .
   Google Scholar
• Selye , H. ( 1936 ). Thymus and adrenals in the response of the organism to injuries and intoxications . British Journal of Experimental Pathology , 17 , 234 – 248 .
   Google Scholar
• Selye , H. ( 1956 ). Stress and psychobiology . Journal of Clinical Experimental Psychopathology , 17 , 370 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith , C. A. , Haynes , K. N. , Lazarus , R. S. , & Pope , L. K. ( 1993 ). In search of the “hot” cognitions: Attributions, appraisals, and their relation to emotion . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 65 , 916 – 929 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , C. A. , & Pope , L. K. ( 1992 ) . Appraisal and emotion: The interactional contributions of disposition and situational factors . In M. S. Clark (Ed.), Emotion and social behavior: Review of personality and social psychology (pp. 32 – 62 ). Thousand Oaks , CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , C. D. , Sawyer , C. R. , & Behnke , R. R. ( 2005 ). Physical symptoms of discomfort associated with worry about giving a public speech . Communication Reports , 18 , 31 – 41 .
   Google Scholar
• Suls , J. , & Fletcher , B. ( 1985 ). The relative efficacy of avoidant and nonavoidant coping strategies: A meta-analysis . Health Psychology , 4 , 249 – 288 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood , J. V. , Saltzberg , J. A. , Neale , J. M. , Stone , A. A. , & Rachmiel , T. B. ( 1990 ). Self-focused attention, coping responses, and distressed mood in everyday life . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 58 , 1027 – 1036 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zarefsky , D. ( 2004 ). Public speaking: Strategies for success , (4th ed.) . Boston : Allyn & Bacon .
   Google Scholar