66
Views
7
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Original Articles

A structural analysis of risky‐shift and cautious‐shift discussions: The diffusion‐of‐responsibility theory

&
Pages 26-36 | Published online: 21 May 2009

References

  • Alker , H.A. and Kogan , N. 1968 . Effects of norm‐oriented group discussion on individual verbal risk taking and conservatism. . Human Relations , 21 : 393 – 405 .
  • Anderson , T.W. and Goodman , L.A. 1957 . Statistical inferences about Markov chains. . Annals of Mathematical Statistics , 28 : 89 – 110 .
  • Auld , F. Jr. and White , A.M. 1956 . Rules for dividing interviews into sentences. . Journal of Psychology , 42 : 273 – 281 .
  • Bem , D.J. , Wallach , M.A. and Kogan , N. 1965 . Group decision making under risk of aversive consequences. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 1 : 453 – 460 .
  • Brown , R. 1965 . Social psychology , New York : Free Press .
  • Burnstein , E. , Miller , H. , Vinokur , A. , Katz , S. and Crowley , J. 1971 . Risky shift is eminently rational. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 20 : 462 – 471 .
  • Cartwright , D. 1971 . Risk taking by individuals and groups: An assessment of research employing choice dilemmas. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 20 : 361 – 378 .
  • Cartwright , D. 1973 . Determinants of scientific progress: The case of research on the risky shift. . American Psychologist , 28 : 222 – 231 .
  • Cheek , F.E. and Anthony , R. 1970 . Personal pronoun usage in families of schizophrenics and social space utilization. . Family Process , 9 : 431 – 447 .
  • Clark , R.D. III . 1971 . Group‐induced shift toward risk: A critical appraisal. . Psychological Bulletin , 76 : 251 – 270 .
  • Clark , R.D. III and Williams , E.P. 1970 . The risky‐shift phenomenon: The diffusion‐of‐responsibility hypothesis or the risk‐as‐a‐value hypothesis . Paper presented at the meeting of the Southwestern Psychological Association . April 1970 , St. Louis.
  • Clark , R.D. III , Crockett , W.H. and Archer , R.L. 1971 . Risk‐as‐value hypothesis: The relation between perception of self, others, and the risky shift. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 20 : 425 – 429 .
  • Cline , R.J. and Johnson , B. McD. 1976 . The verbal stare: Focus of attention in conversation. . Communication Monographs , 43 : 1 – 10 .
  • Conrad , D.C. and Conrad , R. 1956 . The use of personal pronouns as categories for studying small group interaction. . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 52 : 277 – 279 .
  • Darley , J.M. and Latane , B. 1968 . Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 8 : 377 – 383 .
  • Davis , J.H. 1973 . Group decision and social interaction: A theory of social decision schemes. . Psychological Review , 80 : 97 – 125 .
  • Fraser , C. , Gouge , C. and Billig , M. 1971 . Risky shifts, cautious shifts, and group polarization. . European Journal of Social Psychology , 1 : 7 – 30 .
  • Games , P.A. and Klare , G.R. 1967 . Elementary statistics , New York : McGraw‐Hill .
  • Gordon , T. 1970 . Parent effectiveness training , 117 – 119 . New York : Wyden .
  • Hewes , D.E. 1975 . Statistical tests for Markov chains . Paper presented at the Markov Chain Tutorial, International Communication Association . April 1975 , Chicago.
  • Kogan , N. and Wallach , M.A. 1967 . Group risk taking as a function of members’ anxiety and defensiveness. . Journal of Personality , 35 : 50 – 63 . (a)
  • Kogan , N. and Wallach , M.A. 1967 . Risky‐shift phenomenon in small decision‐making groups: A test of the information‐exchange hypothesis. . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 3 : 75 – 84 . (b)
  • Kullback , S. , Kupperman , M. and Ku , H. 1962 . Tests for contingency tables and Markov chains. . Techometrics , 74 : 592 – 601 .
  • Lamm , H. 1967 . Will an observer advise higher risk taking after hearing a discussion of the decision problem? . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 6 : 467 – 471 .
  • Lamm , H. , Trommsdorff , G. and Kogan , N. 1970 . Pessimism‐optimism and risk taking in individual and group contexts. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 15 : 366 – 374 .
  • Marquis , D.G. 1962 . Individual responsibility and group decisions involving risk. . Industrial Management Review , 3 : 8 – 23 .
  • Mehrabian , A. 1971 . Silent messages , Belmont, Calif. : Wadsworth .
  • Myers , D.G. and Bishop , G.D. 1970 . Discussion effects on racial attitudes. . Science , 169 : 778 – 789 .
  • Myers , D.G. and Lamm , H. 1976 . The group polarization phenomenon. . Psychological Bulletin , 83 : 602 – 627 .
  • Myers , D.G. , Wong , D.W. and Murdoch , P.H. 1971 . Discussion arguments, information about others’ responses and risky shift. . Psychonomic Science , 24 : 81 – 83 .
  • Pruitt , D.G. 1971 . Choice shifts in group discussion: An introductory review. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 20 : 339 – 360 . (a)
  • Pruitt , D.G. 1971 . Conclusions: Toward an understanding of choice shifts in group discussion. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 20 : 495 – 510 . (b)
  • Pruitt , D.G. and Teger , A.I. 1969 . The risky shift in group betting. . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 5 : 115 – 126 .
  • Scott , W.A. 1955 . Reliability of content analysis: The case of nominal scale coding. . Public Opinion Quarterly , 19 : 321 – 325 .
  • Shaw , M.E. 1976 . Group dynamics: The psychology of small group behavior , New York : McGraw‐Hill .
  • Stoner , J.A.F. 1961 . A comparison of individual and group decisions involving risk , Massachusetts Institute of Technology . Unpublished masters thesis,
  • Teger , A.I. and Pruitt , D.G. 1967 . Components of group risk taking. . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 3 : 189 – 205 .
  • Vidmar , N. and Burdeny , T.C. 1971 . Effects of group size and item type in the “group shift” effect. . Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science , 3 : 393 – 407 .
  • Vinokur , A. 1970 . Group composition and the risky shift. . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 6 : 153 – 166 .
  • Vinokur , A. 1971 . Cognitive and affective processes influencing risk‐taking in groups: An expected utility approach. . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 20 : 472 – 486 . (a)
  • Vinokur , A. 1971 . Review and theoretical analysis of the effects of group processes upon individual and group decisions involving risk. . Psychological Bulletin , 76 : 231 – 250 . (b)
  • Wallach , M.A. and Kogan , N. 1965 . The roles of information, discussion, and consensus in group risk taking. . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 1 : 1 – 19 .
  • Wallach , M.A. , Kogan , N. and Bem , D.J. 1962 . Group influences on individual risk taking. . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 65 : 75 – 86 .
  • Wallach , M.A. , Kogan , N. and Bem , D.J. 1964 . Diffusion of responsibility and level of risk taking in groups. . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 68 : 263 – 274 .
  • Wallach , M.A. , Kogan , N. and Burt , R.B. 1967 . Group risk taking and field dependence‐independence of group members. . Sociometry , 30 : 323 – 338 .
  • Winer , L.R. 1971 . The qualified pronoun count as a measure of change in family psychotherapy. . Family Process , 10 : 243 – 247 .

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.