Exploring Participant Development Through Adventure-Based Programming: A Model from the National Outdoor Leadership School

References

• Allen , L. R. , Stevens , B. , Hurtes , K. and Harwell , R. 1998 . Benefits-based programming of recreation services training manual , Ashburn, VA : National Recreation and Park Association .
   Google Scholar
• Baldwin , C. K. 2000 . Theory, program, and outcomes: Assessing the challenges of evaluating at-risk youth recreation programs . Journal of Park and Recreation Administration , 18 ( 1 ) : 19 – 33 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Baldwin , C. , Persing , J. and Magnuson , D. 2004 . The role of theory, research, and evaluation in adventure education . Journal of Experiential Education , 26 ( 3 ) : 167 – 183 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Bocarro , J. and Witt , P. A. 2003 . Relationship-based programming: The key to successful youth development in recreation settings . Journal of Park and Recreation Administration , 21 ( 3 ) : 75 – 96 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Bollen , K. A. and Hoyle , R. H. 1990 . Perceived cohesion: A conceptual and empirical examination . Social Forces , 69 : 479 – 504 . [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caldwell , L. 2000 . Beyond fun and games? Challenges to adopting a prevention and youth development approach to youth recreation . Journal of Park and Recreation Administration , 18 ( 3 ) : 1 – 18 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Cason , D. and Gillis , H. L. 1994 . A meta-analysis of outdoor adventure programming with adolescents . Journal of Experiential Education , 17 ( 1 ) : 40 – 47 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Estes , C. 1994 . “ Outward Bound: The congruence of principles and practice ” . In Coalition for Education in the Outdoors Second Research Symposium Proceedings , Edited by: McAvoy , L. H. , Stringer , L. A. and Ewert , A. 22 – 32 . Cortland, New York : Coalition for Education in the Outdoors .
   Google Scholar
• Ewert , A. and Heywood , J. 1991 . Group development in the natural environment: Expectations, outcomes and techniques . Environment and Behavior , 23 ( 5 ) : 592 – 615 . [CSA]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ewert , A. 1989 . Outdoor adventure pursuits: Foundations, models, and theories , Columbus, OH : Publishing Horizons .
   Google Scholar
• Ewert , A. 1988 . Reduction of trait anxiety through participation in Outward Bound . Leisure Sciences , 10 ( 2 ) : 107 – 117 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Ewert , A. and McAvoy , L. 2000 . “ The effects of wilderness setting on organized groups: A state of knowledge paper ” . In Wilderness as a place for scientific inquiry , Edited by: McCool , S. F. , Cole , D. N. , Borrie , W. T. and O'Loughlin , J. 1 – 14 . Washington, DC : U.S. Department of Agriculture . (USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-0-VOL-3)
   Google Scholar
• Garst , B. , Schneider , I. and Baker , D. 2001 . Outdoor adventure program participation impacts on adolescent self-perception . Journal of Experiential Education , 24 ( 1 ) : 41 – 49 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Gass , M. A. 1990 . The longitudinal effect of an adventure orientation program on the retention of students . Journal of College Student Development , 31 : 33 – 38 . [CSA]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gookin , J. 2003 . NOLS wilderness educator notebook , Lander, WY : National Outdoor Leadership School .
   Google Scholar
• Green , G. , Kleiber , D. and Tarrant , M. 2000 . The effect of an adventure-based recreation program on the development of resiliency in low income minority youth . Journal of Park and Recreation Administration , 18 ( 3 ) : 76 – 97 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Hanna , G. . Ripples in the water: Reflection on experiential education research designs . Celebrating our tradition charting our future: Proceedings of the international conference for the Association for Experiential Education (20th) . Edited by: Hanna , G. pp. 231 – 235 . Banff, Alberta, , Canada : AEE .
   Google Scholar
• Hastie , P. 1995 . An ecology of a secondary school outdoor adventure camp . Journal of Teaching in Physical Education , 15 ( 1 ) : 79 – 97 . [CSA]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hattie , J. , Marsh , H. , Neill , J. T. and Richards , G. 1997 . Adventure education and Outward Bound: Out-of class experiences that make a lasting difference . Review of Educational Research , 67 ( 1 ) : 43 – 48 . [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Henderson , K. 2004 . Got research in experiential education? Theory and evidence . Journal of Experiential Education , 26 ( 3 ) : 184 – 189 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Henderson , K. and Fox , K. . Methods, measures, and madness: Possibilities for outdoor education research . Coalition for Education in the Outdoors Second Research Symposium Proceedings . Edited by: McAvoy , L. , Stringer , L. A. and Ewert , A. pp. 9 – 13 . Cortland, NY : Coalition for Education in the Outdoors .
   Google Scholar
• Howard , G. S. 1980 . Response-shift bias: A problem in evaluating interventions with pre/post self-reports . Evaluation Review , 4 ( 1 ) : 93 – 106 . [CSA]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howard , G. S. , Ralph , K. M. , Gulanick , N. A. , Maxwell , S. E. , Nance , D. W. and Gerber , S. K. 1979 . Internal invalidity in studies employing self-report instruments: A suggestion remedy . Journal of Educational Measurement , 16 ( 2 ) : 129 – 135 . [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hyde-Hills , I. . It is better to learn to fish: Empowerment in adventure education . Proceedings of the International Adventure Therapy Conference . Exploring the boundaries of adventure therapy: International perspectives , pp. 144 – 148 . (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED424058)
   Google Scholar
• Kelley , M. P. , Coursey , R. and Selby , P. 1997 . Therapeutic adventures outdoors: A demonstration of benefits for people with illness . Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal , 20 ( 4 ) : 61 – 74 . [CSA]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kimball , R. O. 1991 . Empowerment: is not something you can give kids . Adolescent Counselor , July : 24 – 28 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Klint , K. A. 1999 . “ New directions for inquiry into self-concept and adventure experiences ” . In Adventure Programming , Edited by: Miles , J. and Priest , S. 163 – 168 . State College, PA : Venture .
   Google Scholar
• Lam , T. and Bengo , P. 2003 . A comparison of three retrospective self-reporting methods of measuring change in instructional practice . American Journal of Evaluation , 24 ( 1 ) : 65 – 80 . [CSA]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAvoy , L. , Mitten , D. , Stringer , L. , Steckart , J. and Sproles , K. . Group development and group dynamics in outdoor education . Coalition for Education in the Outdoors Third Research Symposium Proceedings . Edited by: McAvoy , L. , Stringer , L. A. , Bialeschki , M. D. and Young , A. pp. 51 – 62 . Cortland, NY : Coalition for Education in the Outdoors .
   Google Scholar
• McFee , M. R. 1993 . The effects of group dynamics on the perception of a positive learning experience in the Outward Bound process , Unpublished doctoral dissertation Wheeling, IL : Forest Institute of Professional Psychology .
   Google Scholar
• McIntyre , N. and Roggenbuck , J. W. 1998 . Nature/person transaction during an outdoor adventure experience: A multi-phasic analysis . Journal of Leisure Research , 30 ( 4 ) : 401 – 422 . [CSA]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKenzie , M. 2003 . Beyond “The Outward Bound Process”: Rethinking student learning . Journal of Experiential Education , 26 ( 1 ) : 8 – 23 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• O'Brien , M. 1990 . Northland wilderness experience: An experiential program for the youth of Taitokerau , Auckland, New Zealand : Auckland University . (ERIC Document Reproduction Services No. ED372886)
   Google Scholar
• Propst , D. B. and Koesler , R. A. 1998 . Bandura goes outdoors: Role of self-efficacy in the outdoor leadership development process . Leisure Sciences , 20 : 319 – 344 . [CSA]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raiola , E. 2003 . Communication and problem-solving in extended field-based outdoor adventure education courses . Journal of Experiential Education , 26 ( 1 ) : 50 – 54 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Raudenbush , S. W. and Bryk , A. S. 2002 . Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods, , 2nd ed. , Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Raudenbush , S. W. , Bryk , A. S. , Cheong , Y. , Congdon , R. and du Toit , M. 2004 . HLM6: Linear and non-linear modeling , Chicago : Scientific Software International .
   Google Scholar
• Rawson , H. E. and Barnett , T. 1993 . Changes in children's manifest anxiety in a therapeutic short-term camping experience: An exploratory study . Therapeutic Recreation Journal , 27 ( 1 ) : 22 – 32 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Ringer , T. M. 2002 . Group action: The dynamics of groups in therapeutic, educational and corporate settings , London : Jessica Kingsley .
   Google Scholar
• Rodriguez , D. A. and Roberts , N. S. 2005 . Understanding the influence of gender and ethnicity on evaluations of outdoor leader effectiveness . World Leisure , 1 : 32 – 44 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Rogers , P. 2000 . “ Program theory: Not whether programs work but how they work ” . In Evaluation models , Edited by: Stufflebeam , D. L. , Madaus , G. F. and Kellaghan , T. 209 – 232 . Boston : Kluwer Academic .
   Google Scholar
• Rohs , F. R. 1999 . Response shift bias: A problem in evaluating leadership development with self-report pretest-posttest measures . Journal of Agricultural Education , 40 ( 4 ) : 28 – 37 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Rohs , F. R. and Langone , C. A. 1997 . Increased accuracy in measurement leadership impacts . Journal of Leadership Studies , 4 ( 1 ) : 150 – 159 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Russell , K. C. 2003 . An assessment of treatment outcomes in outdoor behavioral healthcare treatment . Child and Youth Care Forum , 32 ( 6 ) : 355 – 381 . [CSA] [CROSSREF]
   Google Scholar
• Russell , K. and Sibthorp , J. 2004 . Hierarchical data structures in adventure education and therapy . Journal of Experiential Education , 27 ( 2 ) : 176 – 190 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Sahler , O. and Carpenter , P. 1989 . Evaluation of a camp program for siblings of children with cancer . American Journal of Disease of Children , 143 : 690 – 696 . [CSA]
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Scherl , L. 1990 . “ The wilderness experience: A psychological evaluation of its components and dynamics ” . In The use of wilderness for personal growth, therapy, and education , Edited by: Easley , A. T. , Passineau , J. F. and Driver , B. L. 11 – 22 . Washington, DC : U.S. Department of Agriculture . (USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM-193)
   Google Scholar
• Schrader , M. P. and Wann , D. L. 1999 . High-risk recreation: The relationship between participant characteristics and degree of involvement . Journal of Sport Behavior , 22 ( 3 ) : 426 – 441 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Sibthorp , J. . Development and validation of the characteristics of experience scale for use in adventure based programming [Abstract] . Proceedings of the 2001 Symposium on Leisure Research . pp. 30 Ashburn, Virginia : National Recreation and Park Association .
   Google Scholar
• Sibthorp , J. 2003 . An empirical look at Walsh and Golins' adventure education process model: Relationships between antecedent factors, perceptions of characteristics of an adventure education experience, and changes in self-efficacy . Journal of Leisure Research , 35 ( 1 ) : 80 – 106 . [CSA]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sibthorp , J. and Arthur-Banning , S. 2004 . Developing life effectiveness through adventure education: The roles of participant expectations, perceptions of empowerment, and learning relevance . Journal of Experiential Education , 27 ( 1 ) : 32 – 50 . [CSA]
   Google Scholar
• Sibthorp , J. , Paisley , K. , Gookin , J. and Ward , P. . Response Shift Bias: Examining the Use of Retrospective Pretests in Recreation Research and Evaluation [Abstract] . Proceedings of the 2005 Symposium on Leisure Research . pp. 59 Ashburn, Virginia : National Recreation and Park Association .
   Google Scholar
• Sibthorp , J. , Witter , E. , Wells , M. , Ellis , G. and Voelkl , J. 2004 . Hierarchical linear modeling in park, recreation, and tourism research . Journal of Leisure Research , 36 ( 1 ) : 89 – 100 . [CSA]
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toupence , R. and Townsend , C. 2000 . “ Leadership development and youth camping: Determining a relationship ” . In Coalition for Education in the Outdoors Fifth Research Symposium Proceedings , Edited by: Stringer , L. A. , McAvoy , L. and Young , A. B. 82 – 88 . Cortland, NY : Coalition for Education in the Outdoors .
   Google Scholar
• Warner , A. 1999 . “ Improving program quality through evaluation ” . In Adventure programming , Edited by: Miles , J. and Priest , S. 299 – 308 . State College, PA : Venture .
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , L. 1995 . “ When we want to empower as well as teach ” . In The Theory of Experiential Education, , 3rd ed. , Edited by: Warren , K. , Sakofs , M. and Hunt , J. 275 – 283 . Boulder, Colorado : Kendall/Hunt .
   Google Scholar
• Witt , P. A. and Crompton , J. L. 2002 . Best practices in youth development in public park and recreation settings , Ashburn, VA : National Recreation and Park Association .
   Google Scholar