Measuring perceived crowding for high‐density river recreation: The effects of situational conditions and personal factors

References

• Badger , T. J. 1975 . Rawah Wilderness crowding tolerances and some management techniques: An aspect of social carrying capacity , Fort Collins : Colorado State University . Unpublished master's thesis,
   Google Scholar
• Bright , A. D. , Manfredo , M. J. , Fishbein , M. and Bath , A. 1993 . Application of the theory of reasoned action to the National Park Service's controlled burn policy . Journal of Leisure Research , 25 : 263 – 280 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryan , H. 1977 . Leisure value systems and recreational specialization: The case of trout fishermen . Journal of Leisure Research , 9 : 147 – 187 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bryan , H. 1979 . Conflict in the great outdoors , Birmingham, AL : The Birmingham Publishing Company .
   Google Scholar
• Bultena , G. , Field , D. , Womble , P. and Albrecht , D. 1981 . Closing the gates: A study of backcoun‐try use‐limitation at Mount McKinley National Park . Leisure Sciences , 4 : 249 – 267 .
   Google Scholar
• Desor , J. A. 1972 . Toward a psychological theory of crowding . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 21 : 79 – 83 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dillman , D. 1978 . Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method , New York : Wiley‐Inter‐science .
   Google Scholar
• Ditton , R. B. , Fedler , A. J. and Graefe , A. R. 1983 . Factors contributing to perceptions of recreational crowding . Leisure Sciences , 5 : 273 – 288 .
   Google Scholar
• Graefe , A. R. , Vaske , J. J. and Kuss , F. R. 1984 . Social carrying capacity: An integration and synthesis of twenty years of research . Leisure Sciences , 6 : 396 – 431 .
   Google Scholar
• Gramman , J. H. 1982 . Toward a behavioral theory of crowding in outdoor recreation: An evaluation and synthesis of research . Leisure Sciences , 5 : 109 – 126 .
   Google Scholar
• Gramman , J. H. and Burdge , R. J. 1984 . Crowding perception determinants at intensively used developed outdoor recreation sites . Leisure Sciences , 6 : 167 – 186 .
   Google Scholar
• Hall , T. and Shelby , B. 1996 . Who cares about encounters? Differences between those with and without norms . Leisure Sciences , 18 : 7 – 22 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hammitt , W. E. , McDonald , C. D. and Noe , F. P. 1984 . Use level and encounters: Important variables of perceived crowding among nonspecialized recreationists . Journal of Leisure Research , 16 : 1 – 8 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Heberlein , T. A. Density, crowding, and satisfaction: Sociological studies for determining carrying capacities . Proceedings of the Symposium on River Recreation Management and Research . pp. 67 – 76 . Minneapolis, MN : USDA Forest Service . Gen. Tech. Rep. NC‐28
   Google Scholar
• Heberlein , T. , Alfano , G. , Shelby , B. and Vaske , J. Expectations, preferences, and feeling crowded in recreation activities . Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Rural Sociological Society . Burlington, VT. August .
   Google Scholar
• Heberlein , T. A. and Vaske , J. J. 1977 . Crowding and visitor conflict on the Bois Brule river , Tech. Rep. WIS WRC 77–04) Madison : Univ. of Wisconsin, Water Resources Center .
   Google Scholar
• Jacob , G. R. and Schreyer , R. 1980 . Conflict in outdoor recreation: A theoretical perspective . Journal of Leisure Research , 12 : 368 – 380 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lucas , R. C. 1964 . Wilderness perception and use: The example of the Boundary Waters Canoe Area . Natural Resources Journal , 3 : 394 – 411 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manfredo , M. J. and Bright , A. D. 1991 . A model for assessing the effects of communication on recreationists . Journal of Leisure Research , 23 : 1 – 20 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manning , R. E. 1985 . Studies in outdoor recreation: A review and synthesis of the social science literature in outdoor recreation , Corvallis : Oregon State University Press .
   Google Scholar
• McDonald , C. D. 1996 . Normative perspectives on outdoor recreation behavior: Introductory comments . Leisure Sciences , 18 : 1 – 6 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norusis , M. J. 1991 . SPSS/PC+ V2.0 Base Manual , Chicago, IL : SPSS Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Patterson , M. E. and Hammitt , W. E. 1990 . Backcountry encounter norms, actual reported encounters, and their relationship to wilderness solitude . Journal of Leisure Research , 22 : 259 – 275 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ramthun , R. 1995 . Factors in user group conflict between hikers and mountain bikers . Leisure Sciences , 17 : 159 – 170 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roggenbuck , J. W. , Williams , D. R. , Bange , S. P. and Dean , D. J. 1991 . River float trip encounter norms: Questioning the use of the social norms concept . Journal of Leisure Research , 23 : 133 – 153 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schindler , B. and Shelby , B. 1995 . Product shift in recreation settings: Findings and implications from panel research . Leisure Sciences , 17 : 91 – 108 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt , D. E. and Keating , J. P. 1979 . Human crowding and personal control: An integration of the research . Psychological Bulletin , 86 : 680 – 700 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schreyer , R. and Nielsen , M. L. 1978 . Westwater and desolation canyons: Whitewater river recreation , Logan, UT : Institute for the study of outdoor recreation and tourism, Utah State University .
   Google Scholar
• Schreyer , R. and Roggenbuch , J. W. 1978 . The influence of experience expectations on crowding perceptions and social‐psychological carrying capacities . Leisure Sciences , 1 : 373 – 394 .
   Google Scholar
• Shelby , B. 1980 . Crowding models for backcountry recreation . Land Economics , 56 : 43 – 55 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shelby , B. , Bregenzer , N. S. and Johnson , R. 1988 . Displacement and product shift: Empirical evidence from Oregon rivers . Journal of Leisure Research , 20 : 274 – 288 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shelby , B. , Heberlein , T. A. , Vaske , J. J. and Alfano , G. 1983 . Expectations, preferences, and feeling crowded in recreation activities . Leisure Sciences , 6 : 1 – 14 .
   Google Scholar
• Shelby , B. and Vaske , J. J. 1991 . Using normative data to develop evaluative standards for resource management: A comment on three recent papers . Journal of Leisure Research , 23 : 173 – 187 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shelby , B. , Vaske , J. J. and Heberlein , T. A. 1989 . Comparative analysis of crowding in multiple locations: Results from fifteen years of research . Leisure Sciences , 11 : 269 – 291 .
   Google Scholar
• Stankey , G. H. 1973 . Visitor perception of wilderness recreation carrying capacity , USDA Forest Service Research Paper INT‐142) Ogden, UT : Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station .
   Google Scholar
• Stankey , G. H. , Cole , D. N. , Lucas , R. C. , Peterson , M. E. , Frissell , S. S. and Washburne , R. F. 1985 . The limits of acceptable change (LAC) system for wilderness planning , USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT‐176) Ogden, UT : Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station .
   Google Scholar
• Stockdale , J. E. 1978 . “ Crowding: Determinants and effects ” . In Advances in experimental social psychology , Edited by: Berkowitz , L. Vol. 11 , New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Stokols , D. 1972 . On the distinction between density and crowding: Some implications for future research . Psychological Review , 79 : 275 – 277 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarrant , M. A. and English , D. 1996 . A crowding‐based model of social carrying capacity: Applications for Whitewater boating use . Journal of Leisure Research , 28 : 155 – 168 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tarrant , M. A. , Overdevest , C. , Bright , A. D. , Cordell , H. K. and English , D. in press . The effect of persuasive communication strategies on rural resident attitudes toward ecosystem management . Society and Natural Resources ,
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vaske , J. J. , Shelby , B. , Graefe , A. R. and Heberlein , T. A. 1986 . Backcountry encounter norms: Theory, method and empirical evidence . Journal of Leisure Research , 18 : 137 – 153 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westover , T. N. 1989 . Perceived crowding in recreational settings: An environment‐behavior model . Environment and Behavior , 21 : 258 – 276 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whittaker , D. and Shelby , B. 1988 . Types of norms for recreation impacts: Extending the social norms concept . Journal of Leisure Research , 20 : 261 – 273 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar