Multiscale Terrain Analysis of Multibeam Bathymetry Data for Habitat Mapping on the Continental Slope

References

• Albani , M. , Klinkenberg , B. , Andison , D. W. and Kimmins , J. P. 2004 . The choice of window size in approximating topographic surfaces from digital elevation models . International Journal of Geographical Information Science , 18 ( 6 ) : 577 – 593 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basillais , E. 1997 . Coral surfaces and fractal dimensions: a new method. Comptes Rendus de l’Academie des Sciences—Series III—Sciences de la Vie . 320 ( 8 ) : 653 – 657 .
   Google Scholar
• Beck , M. W. 2000 . Separating the elements of habitat structure: independent effects of habitat complexity and structural components on rocky intertidal gastropods . Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology , 249 ( 1 ) : 29 – 49 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bekkby , T. , Erikstad , L. , Bakkestuen , V. and Bjørge , A. 2002 . A Landscape Ecological Approach to Coastal Zone Applications . Sarsia , 87 ( 5 ) : 396 – 408 .
   Google Scholar
• Bekkby , T. L. , Erikstad , O. , Christensen and O. , Longva. 2005 . Effekten av skala og kriterier for inndeling i marine substrattyper. . Vann , 1 : 35 – 43 .
   Google Scholar
• Billett , D. S[xdot] M. 1991 . Deep-sea holothurians . Oceanography and Marine Biology Annual Review , 29 : 259 – 317 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boyce , M. S. , Vernier , P. R. , Nielsen , S. E. and Schmiegelow , F. K[xdot] A. 2002 . Evaluating resource selection functions . Ecological Modelling , 157 : 281 – 300 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradbury , R. H. and Reichelt , R. E. 1983 . Fractal Dimension of a Coral Reef at Ecological Scales . Marine Ecology Progress Series , 10 : 169 – 171 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brotons , L. W. , Thuiller , M.B. Araújo and Hirzel , A. H. 2004 . Presence-absence versus presence-only modelling methods for predicting bird habitat suitability. . Ecography , 27 : 437 – 448 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Commito , J. A. and Rusignuolo , B. R. 2000 . Structural complexity in mussel beds: the fractal geometry of surface topography . Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology , 255 ( 2 ) : 133 – 152 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Csillag , F. and Kabos , S. 2002 . Wavelets, boundaries and the spatial analysis of landscape pattern . Ecoscience , 9 ( 2 ) : 177 – 190 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dartnell , P. 2002 . “ Applying Remote Sensing Techniques to map Seafloor Geology/Habitat Relationships. ” . pp. 108 San Francisco State University : Masters Thesis .
   Google Scholar
• Dartnell , P. and Gardner , J. V. 2004 . Predicted Seafloor Facies from Multibeam Bathymetry and Acoustic Backscatter Data, Central Santa Monica Bay, California. . Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing , 70 ( 9 ) : 1081
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Mol , B. P. , Van , Rensbergen , Pillen , S. , Herreweghe , K. Van , Rooij , D. Van , McDonnell , A. , Huvenne , V. , Ivanov , M. , Swennen , R. and Henriet , J. P. 2002 . Large deep-water coral banks in the Porcupine Basin, southwest of Ireland. . Marine Geology , 188 ( 1-2 ) : 193 – 231 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dettki , H.R. Löfstrand and Edenius , L. 2003 . Modeling habitat suitability for moose in coastal northern Sweden: empirical vs. process-oriented approaches. . Ambio , 32 ( 8 ) : 549 – 556 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Díaz , J. V. M. 1999 . Analysis of Multibeam Sonar Data for the Characterization of Seafloor Habitats. . MEng Thesis, University of New Brunswick , : pp. 153
   Google Scholar
• Džeroski , S. and Drumm , D. 2003 . Using regression trees to identify the habitat preference of the sea cucumber (Holothuria leucospilota) on Rarotonga, Cook Islands . Ecological Modelling , 170 : 219 – 226 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Engler , R. , Guisan , A. and Rechsteiner , L. 2004 . An improved approach for predicting the distribution of rare and endangered species from occurrence and pseudo-absence data . Journal of Applied Ecology , 41 : 263 – 274 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Evans , I. S. 1980 . An integrated system of terrain analysis and slope mapping. . Zeitschrift für Geomorphologic , 36 : 274 – 295 .
   Google Scholar
• Fisher , P. , Wood , J. and Cheng , T. 2004 . Where is Helvellyn? Fuzziness of multi-scale landscape morphometry . Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers , 29 ( 1 ) : 106 – 128 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Florinsky , I. V. 1998 . Accuracy of local topographic variables derived from digital elevation models . International Journal of Geographical Information Science , 12 ( 1 ) : 47 – 61 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franklin , J. 1995 . Predictive vegetation mapping: geographic modeling of biospatial patterns in relation to environmental gradients . Progress in Physical Geography , 19 ( 4 ) : 474 – 499 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Franklin , J. P. , McCullough and Gray , C. 2000 . “ Terrain Variables Used for Predictive Mapping of Vegetation Communities in Southern California. ” . In Terrain Analysis: Principles and Applications , Edited by: Wilson , J. P. and Gallant , J. 331 – 353 . New York: John Wiley : Sons Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Gage , J. D. and Tyler , P. A. 1991 . Deep-Sea Biology: A natural history of organisms at the deep-sea floor. , pp. 504 Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gallant , J. C. and Wilson , J. P. 2000 . “ Primary Topographic Attributes. ” . In Terrain Analysis: Principles and Applications, , Edited by: Wilson , J. P. and Gallant , J. 85 – 51 . New York: John Wiley : Sons Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Gotech . 2002 . Report of the Survey in Zone 3 of the Irish National Seabed Survey: Volume 1—Describing the results and the methods used, The Geological Survey of Ireland. .
   Google Scholar
• Greene , H.G. M. , Yoklavich , M. , Starr , R. M. , O’Connell , V. M. , Wakefield , W. W. , Sullivan , D. E. , McRea Jr , J. E. and Cailliet , G. M. 1999 . A classification scheme for deep seafloor habitats. . Oceanologica Acta , 22 ( 6 ) : 663 – 678 .
   Google Scholar
• Grehan , A. J. , Unnithan , V. and Opderbecke , J. 2005a . “ Fishing Impacts on Irish Deepwater Coral Reefs: Making a Case for Coral Conservation. ” . In Benthic habitats and the effects of fishing , Edited by: Barnes , P. W. and Thomas , J. P. 819 – 832 . Bethesda, MD : American Fisheries Society Symposium 41 American Fisheries Society .
   Google Scholar
• Grehan , A. J. , Unnithan , V. and Opderbecke , J. 2005 . “ Fishing Impacts on Irish Deepwater Coral Reefs: Making a Case for Coral Conservation. ” . In Benthic habitats and the effects of fishing , Edited by: Barnes , P. W. and Thomas , J. P. 819 – 832 . Bethesda, MD : American Fisheries Society Symposium 41 American Fisheries Society .
   Google Scholar
• Grehan , A. M. , Wilson , J. , Guinan , J. Ullgren , Riordan , J. , Rooney , S.F. Sacchetti and Shipboard , Party . 2005b . Ocean habitat mapping in the deep-waters off the west coast of Ireland using a Remotely Operated Vehicle. CE 0505 Cruise Report. Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, NUI, Galway. .
   Google Scholar
• Guisan , A. and Thuiller , W. 2005 . Predicting species distribution: offering more than simple habitat models . Ecology Letters , 8 ( 9 ) : 993 – 1009 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halley , J. M. , Hartley , S. , Kallimanis , A. S. , Kunin , W. E. , Lennon , J. J. and Sgardelis , S. P. 2004 . Uses and abuses of fractal methodology in ecology. . Ecology Letters , 7 : 254 – 271 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hartley , S. , Kunin , W. E. , Lennon , J. J[xdot] O and Pocock , M. J. O. 2004 . Coherence and discontinuity in the scaling of species’ distribution patterns . Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B , 271 : 81 – 88 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Herzfeld , U. C. and Overbeck , C. 1999 . Analysis and simulation of scale-dependent fractal surfaces with application to seafloor morphology . Computers & Geosciences , 25 ( 9 ) : 979 – 1007 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirzel , A. H. 2001 . “ When GIS come to life. Linking landscape- and population ecology for large population management modeling: the case of Ibex ” . In Capra ibex , Switzerland : University of Lausanne . Ph.D. Thesis
   Google Scholar
• Hirzel , A. H. and Arlettaz , R. 2003 . “ Environmental-envelope based habitat-suitability models. ” . In 1st Conference on Resource Selection by Animals , Edited by: Manly , B.F. J. Laramie, WY : Omnipress .
   Google Scholar
• Hirzel , A. H. , Hausser , J. D[xdot]C. and Perrin , N. 2002 . Ecological-Niche Factor Analysis: How to compute Habitat-Suitability Maps without absence data? Ecology 83(7):2027–2036.
   Google Scholar
• Hirzel , A. H. , Lay , G. L. , Helfer , V. , Randin , C. and Guisan , A. 2006 . Evaluating the ability of habitat suitability models to predict species presences . Ecological Modelling , 199 : 142 – 152 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horn , B. K[xdot] P. 1981 . Hill shading and the reflectance map . Proceedings of the IEEE , 69 ( 1 ) : 14 – 47 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hughes Clarke , J. E. 2003 . Dynamic motion residuals in swath sonar data: Ironing out the creases . International Hydrographic Review , 4 ( 1 ) : 6 – 23 .
   Google Scholar
• Iampietro , P. J. and Kvitek , R. G. 2002 . “ Quantitative Seafloor Habitat Classification using GIS Terrain Analysis: Effects of Data Density, Resolution and Scale (Poster), Symposium on Effects of Fishing Activities on Benthic Habitats: Linking Geology, Biology, Socioeconomics, and Management ” . Tampa, FL
   Google Scholar
• Iampietro , P. J. , Summers-Morris , E. and Kvitek , R. G. 2004 . “ Species-Specific Marine Habitat Maps from High-Resolution, Digital Hydrographic Data, 24th Annual ESRI User Conference. ” . San Diego, CA : ESRI .
   Google Scholar
• Jenness , J. 2002 . “ Surface Areas and Ratios from Elevation Grid (surfgrids.avx) extension for ArcView 3.x—version 1.2. Jenness Enterprises. ” . Available at http://www.jennessent.com/arcview/grid_tools.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Jenness , J. 2005 . “ Directional Slope extension for ArcView 3.x. Jenness Enterprises. ” . Available at: http://www.jennessent.com/arcview/dir_slopes.htm
   Google Scholar
• Jones , K. H. 1998 . A comparison of two approaches to ranking algorithms used to compute hill slopes . GeoInformatica , 2 ( 3 ) : 235 – 256 .
   Google Scholar
• Keitt , T. H. 2000 . Spectral representation of neutral landscapes . Landscape Ecology , 15 : 479 – 493 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keitt , T. H. and Urban , D. L. 2005 . Scale-specific inference using wavelets. . Ecology , 86 ( 9 ) : 2497 – 2504 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kenny , A. J. , Cato , I. , Desprez , M. , Fader , G. , Schuttenhelm , R. T. E. and Side , J. 2003 . An overview of seabed-mapping technologies in the context of marine habitat classification. . ICES Journal of Marine Science , 60 ( 2 ) : 411 – 418 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kienzle , S. 2004 . The effect of DEM raster resolution on first order, second order and compound terrain derivatives . Transactions in GIS , 8 ( 1 ) : 83 – 111 .
   Google Scholar
• Klages , M. J. and Thiede . 2004 . “ The Expedition ARKTIS XIX/3 of the Research Vessel POLARSTERN in 2003 ” . Edited by: Foucher , J. P. 488 Berichte zur Polar- und Meeresforschung .
   Google Scholar
• Kostylev , V. E. , Courtney , R. C. , Robert , G. and Todd , B. J. 2003 . Stock evaluation of giant scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) using high-resolution acoustics for seabed mapping. . Fisheries Research , 60 ( 2-3 ) : 479 – 492 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kostylev , V. E. , Erlandsson , J. , Ming , M. Y. and Williams , G. A. 2005 . The relative importance of habitat complexity and surface area in assessing biodiversity: Fractal application on rocky shores . Ecological Complexity , 2 ( 3 ) : 272 – 286 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kostylev , V. E. , Todd , B. J. , Fader , G. B[xdot] J. , Courtney , R. C. , Cameron , G. D[xdot] M. and Pickrill , R. A. 2001 . Benthic habitat mapping on the Scotian Shelf based on multibeam bathymetry, surficial geology and sea floor photographs . Marine Ecology Progress Series , 219 : 121 – 137 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kumar , P. and Foufoula-Georgiou , E. 1997 . Wavelet analysis for geophysical investigations . Reviews of Geophysics , 35 ( 4 ) : 385 – 412 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Le Danois , E. 1948 . Edited by: Les Profondeurs , de la Mer. pp. 303 Payot, , Paris : New York: Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Leverette , T. L. and Metaxas , A. 2005 . “ Predicting habitat for two species of deep-water coral on the Canadian Atlantic continental shelf and slope. ” . In Cold-Water Corals and Ecosystems , Edited by: Freiwald , A. and Roberts , J. M. 467 – 479 . Berlin : Springer-Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Lundblad , E. , Wright , D. J. , Miller , J. , Larkin , E. M. , Rinehart , R. , Naar , D. F. , Donahue , B. T. , Anderson , S. M. and Battista , T. 2006 . A Benthic Terrain Classification Scheme for American Samoa. . Marine Geodesy , 29 ( 2 ) : 89 – 111 .
   Google Scholar
• MacArthur , R. H. 1960 . On the Relative Abundance of Species . American Naturalist , 94 : 25 – 36 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mallat , S. 1999 . A wavelet tour of signal processing , New York: Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mandelbrot . 1983 . The Fractal Geometry of Nature. , pp. 468 New York : W. H. Freeman and Company .
   Google Scholar
• Mark , D. M. 1984 . Fractal dimension of a coral reef at ecological scales: a discussion . Marine Ecology Progress Series , 14 : 293 – 294 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mark , D. M. and Aronson , P. B. 1984 . Scale-Dependent fractal dimensions of topographic surfaces: An empirical investigation with applications in geomorphology and computer mapping. . Mathematical Geology , 16 ( 7 ) : 671 – 683 .
   Google Scholar
• Misiti , M. , Misiti , Y. , Oppenheim , G. and Poggi , J. 2002 . Wavelet Toolbox. Mathworks users guide, version 2.1
   Google Scholar
• Mohn , C. and Beckmann , A. 2002 . Numerical studies on flow amplification at an isolated shelfbreak bank, with application to Porcupine Bank . Continental Shelf Research , 22 ( 9 ) : 1325 – 1338 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parnum , I. M. , Sibawessy , P. J. W. and Garilov , A. N. 2004 . “ Identification of seafloor habitats in coastal shelf waters using a multibeam echosounder, Acoustics 2004, Gold Coast, ” . Australia
   Google Scholar
• Patthey , P. 2003 . “ Habitat and corridor selection of an expanding red deer (Cervus elaphus) population. ” . pp. 468 New York : W. H. Freeman and Company . Ph.D. Thesis, Universite de Lausanne
   Google Scholar
• Rex , M. A. , Etter , R. J. and Stuart , C. T. 1997 . “ Large-scale patterns of species diversity in the deep-sea benthos. ” . In Marine Biodiversity: Patterns and Processes , Edited by: Tickell , C. , Ormond , R. , Gage , J. D. and Ormond , M. V. 94 – 121 . Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press . W. H. Freeman and Company
   Google Scholar
• Riemann-Zürneck , K. 1986 . On the biogeography of the Southwest Atlantic with special reference to sea anemones (Coelenterata: Actiniaria) . Helgoländer Meeresunters , 40 : 91 – 149 .
   Google Scholar
• Riley , S. J. , DeGloria , S. D. and Elliot , R. 1999 . A terrain ruggedness index that quantifies topographic heterogeneity . Intermountain Journal of Sciences , 5 ( 1–4 ) : 23 – 27 .
   Google Scholar
• Rinehart , R. , Wright , D. J. , Lundblad , E. R. , Larkin , E. M. , Murphy , J. and Cary-Kothera , L. 2004 . “ ArcGIS 8.x Benthic Terrain Modeler: Analysis in American Samoa. ” . pp. 468 San Diego, CA : W. H. Freeman and Company . 24th Annual ESRI User Conference
   Google Scholar
• Riordan , J. , Omerdic , E. and Toal , D. 2005 . “ Implementation and Application of a Real-Time Sidescan Sonar Simulator, IEEE Oceans ” . Brest, , France
   Google Scholar
• Roberts , J. M. , Long , D. , Wilson , J. B. , Mortensen , P. B. and Gage , J. D. 2003 . The cold-water coral Lophelia pertusa (Scleractinia) and enigmatic seabed mounds along the north-east Atlantic margin: are they related? . Marine Pollution Bulletin , 46 : 7 – 20 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roberts , J. M. , Brown , C. J. , Long , D. and Bates , C. R. 2005 . Acoustic mapping using a multibeam echosounder reveals cold-water coral reefs and surrounding habitats . Coral Reefs , 24 ( 4 ) : 654 – 669 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saunders , S. C. , Chen , J. , Drummer , T. D. , Gustafson , E. J. and Brosofske , K. D. 2005 . Identifying scales of pattern in ecological data: a comparison of lacunarity, spectral and wavelet analysis . Ecological Complexity , 2 : 87 – 105 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt , J. , Evans , I. S. and Brinkmann , J. 2003 . Comparison of polynomial methods for land surface curvature calculation . International Journal of Geographical Information Science , 17 ( 8 ) : 797 – 814 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmidt , J. and Hewitt , A. 2004 . Fuzzy land element classification from DTMs based on geometry and terrain position. . Geoderma , 121 ( 3-4 ) : 243 – 256 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwinghamer , P. , Guigné , J. Y. and Siu , W. C. 1996 . Quantifying the impact of trawling on benthic habitat structure using high resolution acoustics and chaos theory. . Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences , 53 : 288 – 296 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shao , X. and Ma , C. 2003 . A general approach to derivative calculation using wavelet transform . Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems , 69 ( 1–2 ) : 157 – 165 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shary , P. A. , Sharaya , L. S. and Mitusov , A. V. 2002 . Fundamental quantitative methods of land surface analysis . Geoderma , 107 : 1 – 32 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tate , N. and Wood , J. 2001 . “ Fractals and Scale Dependencies in Topography. ” . In Scale in Geographical Information Systems , Edited by: Tate , N. and Atkinson , P. 35 – 51 . New York : John Wiley & Sons .
   Google Scholar
• Travis , M. R. , Elsner , G. H. , Iverson , W. D. and Johnson , C. G. 1975 . “ VIEWIT computation of seen areas, slope and aspect for land use planning. PSW 11/1975, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experimental Station ” . Berkley, California, , USA
   Google Scholar
• Turcotte , D. L. 1992 . Fractals and chaos in geology and geophysics. , 221 Cambridge, UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Valentine , P. C. , Fuller , S. J. and Scully , L. A. 2004 . “ Terrain Ruggedness Analysis and Distribution of Boulder Ridges in the Stellwagen Bank National Marine Sanctuary Region (poster). ” . Galway, , Ireland 5th International Symposium on Marine Geological and Biological Habitat Mapping (GeoHAB), May 2004.
   Google Scholar
• Van De , Beuque S. , Auzende , J. -M. , Lafoy , Y. and Grandperrin , R. 1999 . Benefits of swath mapping for the identification of marine habitats in the New Caledonia Economic Zone. . Oceanologica Acta , 22 ( 6 ) : 641 – 650 .
   Google Scholar
• Wallace , J. , Morris , B. and Howarth , P. 2004 . “ The Effects of Scale on Fractal Dimension of Topography: A Case Study from Sudbury ” . 2845 – 2845 . Ontario, , Canada : W. H. Freeman and Company . IGARSS '04—Geoscience & Remote Sensing Symposium IEEE
   Google Scholar
• Warren , S. D. , Hohmann , M. G. , Auerswald , K. and Mitasova , H. 2004 . An evaluation of methods to determine slope using digital elevation data. . Catena , 58 : 215 – 233 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss , A. D. 2001 . “ Topographic Positions and Landforms Analysis (poster), ESRI International User Conference, July 2001. ” . San Diego, CA : ESRI .
   Google Scholar
• Whitmire , C. E. , Wakefield , W. W. , Embley , R. W. , Merle , S. G. , Tissot , B. N. and Puniwai , N. 2004 . Quantitative benthic habitat characterization at Heceta Bank, Oregon. . The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America , 116 ( 4 ) : 2486
   Google Scholar
• Wilbur , A. R. 2000 . “ Fish habitat characterization and assessment: approach to integrate seafloor features and juvenile organisms data. Proceedings of the Oceans 2000 MTS/IEEE Conference and Exhibition, Providence ” . 1555 – 1561 . Rhode Island, , USA Volume 3
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , M. F. J. 2006 . “ Deep sea habitat mapping using a remotely operated vehicle: Mapping and modeling seabed terrain and benthic habitat at multiple scales in the Porcupine Seabight, SW Ireland. Ph.D. Thesis, National University of Ireland ” . 266 Galway
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , M. F[xdot] J. and Grehan , A. J. 2006 . Evidence of coral-associated communities on the upper continental slope, SW Ireland . In prep. ,
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , M. F. J. , Guinan , J. C. , Brown , C. and Grehan , A. J. 2006a . Developing habitat suitability models for continental slope megafauna: cold water coral habitat in the Porcupine Seabight, SW Ireland. . Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. Submitted. ,
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , M. F. J. , Guinan , J. C. , Grehan , A. J. , Brown , C. and Toal , D. 2006b . Mapping and modeling carbonate mound habitat on the continental slope using integrated ROV-based multibeam and video surveys. . Deep Sea Research, Part I. Submitted. ,
   Google Scholar
• With , K. A. and King , A. W. 1997 . The use and misuse of neutral landscape models in ecology. . Oikos , 79 : 219 – 229 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood , J. 1996 . The Geomorphological Characterisation of Digital Elevation Models. . Ph.D. Thesis, University of Leicester
   Google Scholar
• Wood , J. 1998 . “ Modeling the Continuity of Surface Form Using Digital Elevation Models. ” . In Proceedings, 8th International Symposium on Spatial Data Handling Edited by: Poiker , T. and Chrisman , N. 725 – 736 . Vancouver
   Google Scholar
• Wood , J. 1999 . “ Visualization of Scale Dependencies in Surface Models, International Cartographic Association Annual Conference ” . Ottawa August 1999
   Google Scholar
• Wood , J. 2005 . : 797 – 814 . Landserf Version 2.2www.landserf.org
   Google Scholar
• Wu , X. B. and Smeins , F. E. 2000 . Multiple-scale habitat modeling approach for rare plant conservation . Landscape and Urban Planning , 51 ( 1 ) : 11 – 28 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zaniewski , A. E. , Lehmann , A. and Overton , J. M. 2002 . Predicting species spatial distributions using presence-only data: a case study of native New Zealand ferns. . Ecological Modelling , 157 : 261 – 280 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zevenbergen , L. W. and Thorne , C. 1987 . Quantitative analysis of land surface topography . Earth Surface Processes and Landforms , 12 : 47 – 56 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang , X. , Drake , N. A. , Wainwright , J. and Mulligan , M. 1999 . Comparison of slope estimates from low resolution DEMS: Scaling issues and a fractal method for their solution . Earth Surface Processes and Landforms , 24 : 763 – 779 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar