2,096
Views
8
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Research Articles

An Evaluation of the Effects of Very Difficult Goals

&

References

  • 100 metres. (2016, August 4). In Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Retrieved August 6, 2016, from http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=100_metres&oldid=732968301
  • Agnew, J. L. (1997). The establishing operation in organizational behavior management. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 18(1), 7–19. doi:10.1300/J075v18n01_02
  • Atkinson, J. (1958). Towards experimental analysis of human motivation in terms of motives, expectancies and incentives. In J. Atkinson (Ed.), Motives in fantasy, action and society (pp. 288–305). Princeton, NJ: Van Nostrand.
  • Audia, P., Locke, E. A., & Smith, K. (2000). The paradox of success: An archival and a laboratory study of strategic persistence following a radical environmental change. Academy of Management Journal, 43, 837–853. doi:10.2307/1556413
  • Balcazar, F., Hopkins, B. L., & Suarez, Y. (1985). A critical, objective review of performance feedback. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 7(3–4), 65–89. doi:10.1300/J075v07n03_05
  • Bavelas, J., & Lee, E. S. (1978). Effects of goal level on performance: A trade-off of quantity and quality. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 32(4), 219–240. doi:10.1037/h0081692
  • Bryan, W. L., & Harter, N. (1897). Studies in the physiology and psychology of the telegraphic language. Psychological Review, 4, 27–53. doi:10.1037/h0073806
  • Catania, A. C. (2007). Learning (interim 4th ed.). Cornwall-on-Hudson, NY: Sloan.
  • Daniels, A. C. (1994). Bringing out the best in people. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  • Daniels, A. C. (2009). Oops!: 13 management practices that waste time and money (and what to do instead). Atlanta, GA: Performance Management Publications.
  • Drucker, P. F. (1954). The practice of management. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
  • Duncan, P. K., & Bruwelheide, L. R. (1986). Feedback: Use and possible behavioral functions. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 7(3–4), 91–114. doi:10.1300/J075v07n03_06
  • Earley, P. C. (1985a). Influence of information, choice and task complexity upon goal acceptance, performance, and personal goals. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 481–491. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.70.3.481
  • Earley, P. C. (1985b). The influence of goal setting methods on performance, goal acceptance, self-efficacy expectations, and expectancies across levels of goal difficulty. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Los Angeles, CA.
  • Earley, P. C., & Perry, B. (1987). Work plan availability and performance: An assessment of task strategy priming on subsequent task completion. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 39, 279–302. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(87)90025-2
  • Erez, M., & Zidon, I. (1984). Effect of goal acceptance on the relationship of goal difficulty to performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(1), 69–78. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.69.1.69
  • Fellner, D. J., & Sulzer-Azaroff, B. (1984). A behavioral analysis of goal setting. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 6(1), 33–51. doi:10.1300/J075v06n01_03
  • Garland, H. (1982). Goal levels and task performance: A compelling replication of some compelling results. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67(2), 245–248. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.67.2.245
  • Garland, H. (1983). Influence of ability, assigned goals, and normative information on personal goals and performance: A challenge to the goal attainability assumption. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68(1), 20–30. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.68.1.20
  • Garland, H. (1984). Relation of effort-performance expectancy to performance in goal setting experiments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69(1), 79–84. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.69.1.79
  • Hall, H. K., Weinberg, R. S., & Jackson, A. (1987). Effects of goal specificity, goal difficulty, and information feedback on endurance performance. Journal of Sports Psychology, 9, 43–54. doi:10.1123/jsp.9.1.43
  • Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2006). Approach and avoidance during task performance in young men: The role of goal attainment expectancies. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24(3), 299–307. doi:10.1080/17461390500188645
  • Hayes, S. C., Barnes-Holmes, D., & Roche, B. (2001). Relational frame theory: A post- Skinnerian account of human language and cognition. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
  • Houmanfar, R., & Hayes, L. J. (1997). Effects of feedback on task completion, time distribution and time allocation of graduate students. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 18(1), 69–91. doi:10.1300/J075v18n01_05
  • Huber, V. L., & Neale, M. A. (1986). Effects of cognitive heuristics and goals on negotiator performance and subsequent goal setting. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 38, 342–365. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(86)90005-1
  • Isley, S. D. (2007). Toward a functional approach to goal setting ( Unpublished master’s thesis). University of North Texas, Denton, TX.
  • Kang, K., Oah, S., & Dickinson, A. M. (2005). The relative effects of different frequencies of feedback on work performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 23(4), 21–53. doi:10.1300/J075v23n04_02
  • Kerr, S., & Landauer, S. (2004). Using stretch goals to promote organizational effectiveness and personal growth: General Electric and Goldman Sachs. The Academy of Management Executive, 18(4), 134–138. doi:10.5465/AME.2004.15268739
  • Kerr, S., & LePelley, D. (2013). Stretch goals: Risks, possibilities, and best practices. In E. A. Locke & G. P. Latham (Eds.), New Developments in Goal Setting and Task Performance, (pp. 21–31). New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Klein, H. J., Wesson, M. J., Hollenbeck, J. R., & Alge, B. J. (1999). Goal commitment and the goal-setting process: Conceptual clarification and empirical synthesis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84(6), 885. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.84.6.885
  • Klein, H. J., Wesson, M. J., Hollenbeck, J. R., Wright, P. M., & DeShon, R. P. (2001). The assessment of goal commitment: A measurement model meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 85(1), 32–55. doi:10.1006/obhd.2000.2931
  • Latham, G. P., & Locke, E. A. (2006). Enhancing the benefits and overcoming the pitfalls of goal setting. Organizational Dynamics, 35(4), 332–340. doi:10.1016/j.orgdyn.2006.08.008
  • Latham, G. P., & Seijts, G. H. (1999). The effects of proximal and distal goals on performance on a moderately complex task. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 421–429. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(199907)20:4<421::AID-JOB896>3.0.CO;2-#
  • Latham, G. P., & Yukl, G. A. (1975). A review of research on the application of goal setting in organizations. Academy of Management Journal, 18, 824–845. doi:10.2307/255381
  • Locke, E. A. (1966). The relationship of intentions to level of performance. The Journal of Applied Psychology, 50(1), 60–66. doi:10.1037/h0022937
  • Locke, E. A. (1968). Toward a theory of task motivation and incentives. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 3, 157–189. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(68)90004-4
  • Locke, E. A. (1982). Relation of goal level to performance with a short work period and multiple goal levels. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67(4), 512–514. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.67.4.512
  • Locke, E. A. (1991). Problems with goal-setting research in sports—And their solution. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13(3), 311–316. doi:10.1123/jsep.13.3.311
  • Locke, E. A. (1996). Motivation through conscious goal setting. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 5(2), 117–124. doi:10.1016/S0962-1849(96)80005-9
  • Locke, E. A. (2001). Motivation by goal setting. In R. T. Golembiewski (Ed.), Handbook of organizational behavior (pp. 43–56). New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
  • Locke, E. A., & Bryan, J. F. (1967). Performance goals as determinants of level of performance and boredom. Journal of Applied Psychology, 51(2), 120–130. doi:10.1037/h0024471
  • Locke, E. A., & Bryan, J. F. (1969). Knowledge of score and goal level as determinants of work rate. Journal of Applied Psychology, 53, 59–65. doi:10.1037/h0026736
  • Locke, E. A., Frederick, E., Lee, C., & Bobko, P. (1984). Effect of self-efficacy, goals and task strategies on task performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 69, 241–251. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.69.2.241
  • Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting & task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  • Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2006). New directions in goal setting theory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(5), 265–268. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2006.00449.x
  • Locke, E. A., Latham, G. P., & Erez, M. (1988). The determinants of goal commitment. The Academy of Management Review, 13(1), 23–39.
  • Locke, E. A., Mento, A. J., & Katcher, B. L. (1978). The interaction of ability and motivation in performance: An exploration of the meaning of moderators. Personnel Psychology, 32, 269–280. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1978.tb00446.x
  • Locke, E. A., Shaw, K. N., Saari, L. M., & Latham, G. P. (1981). Goal setting and task performance: 1969-1980. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 125–152. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.90.1.125
  • Lorenzi, P. (1988). Underestimated effects of goals and rewards: A systematic replication. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 9(2), 59–71. doi:10.1300/J075v09n02_05
  • Maglieri, K. A. (2007). Evaluation of performance under various pay systems. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Physical Sciences and Engineering, 68(3–B), 1914.
  • Malott, R. W. (1993). A theory of rule-governed behavior and organizational behavior management. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 12(2), 45–65. doi:10.1300/J075v12n02_03
  • Mawhinney, T. C., & Ford, J. D. (1977). The path goal theory of leader effectiveness: An operant interpretation. Academy of Management Review, 2, 398–411.
  • Mento, A. J., Cartledge, N. D., & Locke, E. A. (1980). Maryland vs. Michigan vs. Minnesota: Another look at the relationship of expectancy and goal difficulty to task performance. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 25, 419–440. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(80)90038-0
  • Motowidlo, S. J., Loehr, V., & Dunnette, M. D. (1978). A laboratory study of the effects of goal specificity on the relationship between probability of success and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63(2), 172–179. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.63.2.172
  • Mowen, J. C., Middlemist, R. D., & Luther, D. (1981). Joint effects of assigned goal level and incentive structure on task performance: A laboratory study. Journal of Applied Psychology, 66, 590–603. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.66.5.598
  • O’Hora, D., & Maglieri, K. A. (2006). Goal statements and goal-directed behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 26(1–2), 131–170. doi:10.1300/J075v26n01_06
  • Ordóñez, L. D., Schweitzer, M. E., Galinsky, A. D., & Bazerman, M. H. (2009). Goals gone wild: The systematic side effects of overprescribing goal setting. Academy of Management Perspectives, 2, 6–17. doi:10.5465/AMP.2009.37007999
  • Prue, D. M., & Fairbank, J. A. (1981). Performance feedback in organizational behavior management: A review. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 3(1), 1–16. doi:10.1300/J075v03n01_01
  • Rounsaville, B. J., Carroll, K. M., & Onken, L. S. (2001). A stage model of behavioral therapies research: Getting started and moving on from stage I. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 8(2), 133–142. doi:10.1093/clipsy.8.2.133
  • Rummler, G. A., & Brache, A. P. (1995). Improving performance: How to manage the white space on the organization chart. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
  • Salancik, G. R. (1977). Commitment and the control of organizational behavior and belief. In B. M. Staw, & G. Salancik (Eds.), New directions in organizational behavior (pp. 1–54). Chicago, IL: St. Clair.
  • Sales, M. (1970). Some effects of role overload and role underload. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 5, 592–608. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(70)90042-5
  • Schweitzer, M. E., Ordóñez, L., & Douma, B. (2004). Goal setting as a motivator of unethical behavior. The Academy of Management Journal, 47(3), 422–432. doi:10.2307/20159591
  • See, K., Heath, C., & Fox, C. (2003). Motivating individual performance with challenging goals: Is it better to stretch a little or a lot? ( Unpublished manuscript). New York University, New York, NY.
  • Sherman, S. (1995). Stretch goals: The dark side of asking for miracles. Fortune Magazine, 12(10), 231–232.
  • Singer, R. N., Korienek, G., Jarvis, D., McColskey, D., & Candeletti, G. (1981). Goal setting and task persistence. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 53, 881–882. doi:10.2466/pms.1981.53.3.881
  • Sitkin, S. B., See, K. E., Miller, C. C., Lawless, M. W., & Carton, A. M. (2011). The paradox of stretch goals: Organizations in pursuit of the seemingly impossible. Academy of Management Review, 36(3), 544–566. doi:10.5465/amr.2008.0038
  • Smith, G. S. (2013). Exploring the predictive validity of implicit relational assessment procedure (IRAP) with respect to performance in organizations ( Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Nevada, Reno, NV.
  • Soman, D., & Cheema, A. (2004). When goals are counterproductive: The effects of violation of a behavioral goal on subsequent performance. Journal of Consumer Research, 31, 52–62. doi:10.1086/383423
  • Stedry, A. C. (1960). Budget control and cost behavior. Pittsburgh, PA: Graduate School of Industrial Administration, Carnegie Institute of Technology.
  • Tammemagi, T. (2012). Dynamic analyses of goal-directed behavior ( Unpublished doctoral dissertation). National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.
  • Tammemagi, T., O’Hora, D., & Maglieri, K. A. (2013). The effects of a goal setting intervention on productivity and persistence in an analogue work task. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 33(1), 31–54. doi:10.1080/01608061.2013.758001
  • Taylor, F. W. (1911). Principles of scientific management. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers.
  • Vance, R. J., & Colella, A. (1990). Effects of two types of feedback on goal acceptance and personal goals. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75(1), 68–76. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.75.1.68
  • Vroom, V. (1964). The motivation to work. New York, NY: Wiley.
  • Welsh, D. T., & Ordóñez, L. D. (2014). The dark side of consecutive high performance goals: Linking goal setting, depletion, and unethical behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 123(2), 79–89. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2013.07.006
  • Wilk, L. A., & Redmon, W. K. (1997). The effects of feedback and goal setting on the productivity and satisfaction of university admissions staff. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 18(1), 45–68. doi:10.1300/J075v18n01_04
  • Wrosch, C., Scheier, M. F., Miller, G. E., Schulz, R., & Carver, C. S. (2003). Adaptive self-regulation of unattainable goals: Goal disengagement, goal reengagement, and subjective well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(12), 1494–1508. doi:10.1177/0146167203256921

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.