Physical and Psychological Health of African American Women Caregivers: Unmasking the Paradox

References

• Abrams, J. A., Hill, A., & Maxwell, M. (2019). Underneath the mask of the Strong Black Woman Schema: Disentangling influences of strength and self-silencing on depressive symptoms among U.S. Black women. Sex Roles, 80(9–10), 517–526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-018-0956-y
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen, A. M., Wang, Y., Chae, D. H., Price, M. M., Powell, W., Steed, T. C., Black, A. R., Dhabhar, F. S., Marquez-Magana, L., & Woods-Giscombe, C. L. (2019). Racial discrimination, the superwoman schema, and allostatic load: Exploring an integrative stress-coping model among African American women. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1457(1), 104–123. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14188
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alzheimer’s Association. (2019). Alzheimer’s disease facts and figures. Alzheimer’s Dementia, 15(3), 321–387. https://www.alz.org/media/documents/alzheimers-facts-and-figures-2019-r.pdf
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• American Psychological Association (APA). (2011). Caregiving facts section: Who are family caregivers? https://www.apa.org/pi/about/publications/caregivers/faq/statistics
   Google Scholar
• American Psychological Association (APA). (2020). Dictionary of psychology. https://dictionary.apa.org/masked-depression
   Google Scholar
• Anderson, E. T., & McFarlane, J. (2015). Community as partner: Theory and practice in nursing (7th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.
   Google Scholar
• Armstrong, N. M., Gitlin, L. N., Parisi, J. M., Roth, D. L., & Gross, A. L. (2019). Association of physical functioning of persons with dementia with caregiver burden and depression in dementia caregivers: An integrative data analysis. Aging & Mental Health, 23(5), 587–594. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2018.1441263
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berjot, S., & Gillet, N. (2011). Stress and coping with discrimination and stigmatization. Frontiers in Psychology, 2(2), 33–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00033
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brewster, G. S., Bonds, K., McLennon, S., Moss, K. O., & Lopez, R. P. (2020). Missing the mark: The complexity of African American dementia family caregiving. Journal of Family Nursing, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/1074840720945329
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Byers, D. J., Beard, T. H., & Wicks, M. N. (2009). African-American women’s perceived health status while caring for a relative with end stage renal disease. Nephrology Nursing Journal: Journal of the American Nephrology Nurses' Association, 36(6), 599–611, 632. https://search.proquest.com/docview/216548030
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Calderón, V., & Tennstedt, S. L. (1998). Ethnic differences in the expression of caregiver burden: Results of a qualitative study. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 30(1–2), 159–178. https://doi.org/10.1300/J083v30n01_10
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cannon, S., & Fawcett, J. (2018). Correlates of psychological and physical health outcomes among African American caregiving daughters. Association of Black Nursing Faculty Journal, 29(3), 86–97. http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1&sid=acdb0fd6-c0ae-412f-8e8a-70d80285f6df%40sessionmgr4006
   Google Scholar
• Carthron, D. L., Bailey, D. E., & Anderson, R. A. (2014). The “invisible caregiver”: Multicaregiving among diabetic African-American grandmothers. Geriatric Nursing (New York, N.Y), 35(2 Suppl), S32–S36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gerinurse.2014.02.013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Carthron, D. L., Johnson, T. M., Hubbart, T. D., Strickland, C., & Nance, K. (2010). "Give me some sugar!" The diabetes self-management activities of African-American primary caregiving grandmothers. Journal of Nursing Scholarship: An Official Publication of Sigma Theta Tau International Honor Society of Nursing, 42(3), 330–337. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1547-5069.2010.01336.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2017). African American health: Creating equal opportunities for health. CDC VitalSigns. Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://www.cdc.gov/vitalsigns/pdf/2017-05-vitalsigns.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2019a). Caregiving for family and friends – A public health issue. Alzheimer’s Disease and Healthy Aging. Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://www.cdc.gov/aging/caregiving/caregiver-brief.html
   Google Scholar
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2019b). Caregiving. Alzheimer’s Disease and Healthy Aging. Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://www.cdc.gov/aging/caregiving/index.htm
   Google Scholar
• Clay, O. J., Grant, J. S., Wadley, V. G., Perkins, M. M., Haley, W. E., & Roth, D. L. (2013). Correlates of health-related quality of life in African American and Caucasian stroke caregivers. Rehabilitation Psychology, 58(1), 28–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031726
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dal Santo, T. S., Scharlach, A. E., Nielsen, J., & Fox, P. J. (2007). A stress process model of family caregiver service utilization: Factors associated with respite and counseling service use. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 49(4), 29–49. https://doi.org/10.1300/J083v49n04_03
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dilworth-Anderson, P., Goodwin, P. Y., & Wallace Williams, S. (2004). Can culture help explain the physical health effects of caregiving over time among African American caregivers? The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 59(3), S138–S145. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/59.3.s138
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dowd, J. J., & Bengtson, V. L. (1978). Aging in minority populations an examination of the Double Jeopardy Hypothesis. Journal of Gerontology, 33(3), 427–436. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/33.3.427
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dunbar, P. L. (1922). We wear the mask. The complete poems of Paul Laurence Dunbar. Dodd, Mead and Company.
   Google Scholar
• Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1969). The repertoire of nonverbal behavior: Categories, origins, usage, and coding. Semiotica, 1(1), 49–98. https://doi.org/10.1515/semi.1969.1.1.49
   Google Scholar
• Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (2003). Unmasking the face: A guide to recognizing emotions from facial expressions. Malor Books.
   Google Scholar
• Erving, C. L., Satcher, L. A., & Chen, Y. (2020). Psychologically resilient, but physically vulnerable? Exploring the psychosocial determinants of African American women’s mental and physical health. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332649219900284
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Family Caregiver Alliance (FCA). (2019). Caregiver statistics: Demographics. Family Caregiver Alliance National Center on Caregiving. Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://www.caregiver.org/caregiver-statistics-demographics
   Google Scholar
• Flaskerud, J. H., & Winslow, B. J. (1998). Conceptualizing vulnerable populations health-related research. Nursing Research, 47(2), 69–78. https://doi.org/10.1097/00006199-199803000-00005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flyckt, L., Fatouros-Bergman, H., & Koernig, T. (2015). Determinants of subjective and objective burden of informal caregiving of patients with psychotic disorders. The International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 61(7), 684–692. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764015573088
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fox, K., Hinton, W. L., Levkoff, S. (1999). Take up the caregiver’s burden: Stories of care for urban African American elders with dementia. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 23, 501–529. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1023/A:1005520105518.pdf
   Google Scholar
• George, L. K., & Gwyther, L. P. (1986). Caregiver well-being: A multidimensional examination of family caregivers of demented adults. The Gerontologist, 26(3), 253–259. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/26.3.253
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green, B. (2019). Strong like my mama: The legacy of “strength,” depression, and suicidality in African American women. Women & Therapy, 42(3–4), 265–288. https://doi.org/10.1080/02703149.2019.1622909
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haley, W. E., Gitlin, L. N., Wisniewski, S. R., Feeney Mahoney, D., Coon, D. W., Winter, L., Corcoran, M., Schinfeld, S., & Ory, M. (2004). Well-being, appraisal, and coping in African-American and Caucasian dementia caregivers: Findings from the REACH study. Aging & Mental Health, 8(4), 316–329. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607860410001728998
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hansen, B. R., Hodgson, N. A., & Gitlin, L. N. (2019). African-American caregivers' perspectives on aggressive behaviors in dementia. Dementia (London, England), 18(7–8), 3036–3058. https://doi.org/10.1177/1471301218765946
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hartweg, D. L. (1991). Dorothea Orem: Self-care deficit theory. SAGE Publications Ltd.
   Google Scholar
• Health and Human Services. (2019). Diabetes and African Americans. US Department of Health and Human Services Office of Minority Health. Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://minorityhealth.hhs.gov/omh/browse.aspx?lvl=4&lvlid=18
   Google Scholar
• Hilgeman, M. M., Durkin, D. W., Sun, F., DeCoster, J., Allen, R. S., Gallagher-Thompson, D., & Burgio, L. D. (2009). Testing a theoretical model of the stress process in Alzheimer's caregivers with race as a moderator. The Gerontologist, 49(2), 248–261. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnp015
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Institute on Aging. (2018). Women as caregivers. Our mission and history. Retrieved April 4, 2020, from https://www.ioaging.org/aging-in-america
   Google Scholar
• Jones, P. S., Winslow, B. W., Lee, J. W., Burns, M., & Zhang, X. E. (2011). Development of a caregiver empowerment model to promote positive outcomes. Journal of Family Nursing, 17(1), 11–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/1074840710394854
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, G., Allen, R. S., Wang, S. Y., Park, S., Perkins, E. A., & Parmelee, P. (2018). The relation between multiple informal caregiving roles and subjective physical and mental health status among older adults: Do racial/ethnic differences exist? The Gerontologist, 59(3), 499–508. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnx196
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kim, J.-H., Knight, B. G., & Flynn Longmire, C. V. (2007). The role of familism in stress and coping processes among African American and White dementia caregivers: Effects on mental and physical health. Health Psychology: Official Journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association, 26(5), 564–576. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.26.5.564
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knight, B. G., & Sayegh, P. (2010). Cultural values and caregiving: The updated sociocultural stress and coping model. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 65B(1), 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbp096
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knight, B. G., Silverstein, M., McCallum, T. J., & Fox, L. S. (2000). A sociocultural stress and coping model for mental health outcomes among African American caregivers in Southern California. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 55(3), P142–P150. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/55.3.p142
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company, Inc.
   Google Scholar
• Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1987). Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping. European Journal of Personality, 1(3), 141–169. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2410010304
   Google Scholar
• Mars, D., Davis, B. L., Montgomery, A. J., Burns, D. P., Baker, S. R., & Coffey, D. (2017). The lived experience of African-American informal caregivers of family members with Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias. The Journal of the National Black Nurses Association, 28(2), 19–25. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30282137/
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• National Academy of Medicine (NAM). (2020). National Academy of Medicine: Action collaborative on clinician well-being and resilience. Retrieved March 24, 2020, from https://nam.edu/initiatives/clinician-resilience-and-well-being/
   Google Scholar
• National Alliance for Caregiving (NAC) and the AARP Public Policy Institute. (2015). Caregiving in the U.S. research report: 2015 report. Retrieved March 24, 2020, from https://www.aarp.org/content/dam/aarp/ppi/2015/caregiving-in-the-united-states-2015-report-revised.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Pearlin, L. I. (1999). The stress process revisited. In C. S. Aneshensel & J. C. Phelan (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 395–415). Springer.
   Google Scholar
• Pearlin, L. I., Menaghan, E. G., Lieberman, M. A., & Mullan, J. T. (1981). The stress process. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 22(4), 337–356. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136676
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pearlin, L. I., Mullan, J. T., Semple, S. J., & Skaff, M. M. (1990). Caregiving and the stress process: An overview of concepts and their measures. The Gerontologist, 30(5), 583–594. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/30.5.583
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rice, M. C., Wicks, M. N., & Martin, J. C. (2008). Health risk characteristics of Black female informal caregivers on welfare. Clinical Nursing Research, 17(1), 20–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1054773807311689
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Samuel-Hodge, C. D., Skelly, A. H., Headen, S., & Carter-Edwards, L. (2005). Familial roles of older African-American women with type 2 diabetes: Testing of a new multiple caregiving measure. Ethnicity & Disease, 15(3), 436–443. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/68c9/a3dd6443ea10e738812d6380b1001d2ffa04.pdf
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott, C. B., Clay, O. J., Epps, F., Cothran, F. A., & Williams, I. C. (2020). Associations of knowledge of Alzheimer's disease and memory loss and employment status with burden in African American and Caucasian family caregivers. Dementia (London, England), 19(3), 847–860. https://doi.org/10.1177/1471301218788147
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sieber, S. D. (1974). Toward a theory of role accumulation. American Sociological Review, 39(4), 567–578. https://doi.org/10.2307/2094422
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Siefert, M. L., Williams, A.-I., Dowd, M. F., Chappel-Aiken, L., & McCorkle, R. (2008). The caregiving experience in a racially diverse sample of cancer family caregivers. Cancer Nursing Practice, 31(5), 399–407. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.NCC.0000305760.04357.96
   Google Scholar
• Siegler, I. C., Brummett, B. H., Williams, R. B., Haney, T. L., & Dilworth-Anderson, P. (2010). Caregiving, residence, race, and depressive symptoms. Aging & Mental Health, 14(7), 771–778. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607861003713257
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• White, T. M., Townsend, A. L., & Parris Stephens, M. A. (2000). Comparisons of African American and White women in the parent care role. The Gerontologist, 40(6), 718–728. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/40.6.718
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witters, D. (2011). In the US, caregivers suffer from poorer physical health: Negative effects of caregiving greatest for those 18 to 29. Well-being. https://news.gallup.com/poll/145940/caregivers-suffer-poorer-physical-health.aspx
   Google Scholar
• Woods-Giscombé, C. (2010). Superwoman schema: African American women's views on stress, strength, and health. Qualitative Health Research, 20(5), 668–683. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732310361892
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Woods-Giscombe, C., Robinson, M. N., Carthon, D., Devane-Johnson, S., & Corbie-Smith, G. (2016). Superwoman schema, stigma, spirituality, and culturally sensitive providers: Factors influencing African American women’s use of mental health services. Journal in Best Practices in Health Professions Diversity, 9(1), 1124–1144. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26554242
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zarit, S. H., Todd, P. A., & Zarit, J. M. (1986). Subjective burden of husbands and wives as caregivers: A longitudinal study. The Gerontologist, 26(3), 260–266. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/26.3.260
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar