1,770
Views
44
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Evaluating whether stories can promote social cognition: Introducing the Social Processes and Content Entrained by Narrative (SPaCEN) framework

References

  • Achim, A. M., Guitton, M., Jackson, P. L., Boutin, A., & Monetta, L. (2013). On what ground do we mentalize? Characteristics of current tasks and sources of information that contribute to mentalizing judgments. Psychological Assessment, 25(1), 117–126. doi:10.1037/a0029137
  • Adams, Jr., R. B., Rule, N. O., Franklin, Jr, R. G., Wang, E., Stevenson, M. T., Yoshikawa, S., … Ambady, N. (2010). Cross-cultural reading the mind in the eyes: An fMRI investigation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22(1), 97–108. doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21187
  • Adrian, J. E., Clemente, R. A., Villanueva, L., & Rieffe, C. (2005). Parent–child picture-book reading, mothers’ mental state language and children’s theory of mind. Journal of Child Language, 32, 673–686. doi:10.1017/S0305000905006963
  • Ahadi, S., & Diener, E. (1989). Multiple determinants and effect size. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(3), 398–406. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.3.398
  • Appel, M., & Richter, T. (2007). Persuasive effects of fictional narratives increase over time. Media Psychology, 10(1), 113–134.
  • Appel, M. (2008). Fictional narratives cultivate just-world beliefs. Journal of Communication, 58(1), 62–83. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2007.00374.x
  • Aristotle. ( 330 BCE/1987). Poetics (R. Janko, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Hackett.
  • Baker, C. A., Peterson, E., Pulos, S., & Kirkland, R. A. (2014). Eyes and IQ: A meta-analysis of the relationship between intelligence and “Reading the Mind in the Eyes”. Intelligence, 44, 78–92. doi:10.1016/j.intell.2014.03.001
  • Bal, P. M., & Veltkamp, M. (2013). How does fiction reading influence empathy? An experimental investigation on the role of emotional transportation. PLoS ONE, 8, e55341. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0055341
  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
  • Bandura, A. (2001). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. Media Psychology, 3(3), 265–299. doi:10.1207/S1532785XMEP0303_03
  • Barnes, J. L. (2012). Fiction, imagination, and social cognition: Insights from autism. Poetics, 40, 299–316. doi:10.1016/j.poetic.2012.05.001
  • Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Hill, J., Raste, Y., & Plumb, I. (2001). The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test revised version: A study with normal adults, and adults with Asperger syndrome or high-functioning autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42(2), 241–251. doi:10.1111/jcpp.2001.42.issue-2
  • Barraza, J. A., Alexander, V., Beavin, L. E., Terris, E. T., & Zak, P. J. (2015). The heart of the story: Peripheral physiology during narrative exposure predicts charitable giving. Biological Psychology, 105, 138–143. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.01.008
  • Begeer, S., Gevers, C., Clifford, P., Verhoeve, M., Kat, K., Hoddenbach, E., & Boer, F. (2011). Theory of mind training in children with autism: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(8), 997–1006. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1121-9
  • Benson, J. E., Sabbagh, M. A., Carlson, S. M., & Zelazo, P. D. (2013). Individual differences in executive functioning predict preschoolers’ improvement from theory-of-mind training. Developmental Psychology, 49(9), 1615–1627. doi:10.1037/a0031056
  • Black, J. E., & Barnes, J. L. (2015a). The effects of reading material on social and non-social cognition. Poetics, 52, 32–43. doi:10.1016/j.poetic.2015.07.001
  • Black, J. E., & Barnes, J. L. (2015b). Fiction and social cognition: The effect of viewing award-winning television dramas on theory of mind. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 9, 423–429. doi:10.1037/aca0000031
  • Böckler, A., Herrmann, L., Trautwein, F. M., Holmes, T., & Singer, T. (2017). Know thy selves: Learning to understand oneself increases the ability to understand others. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1(2), 197–209. doi:10.1007/s41465-017-0023-6
  • Bormann, D., & Greitemeyer, T. (2015). Immersed in virtual worlds and minds: Effects of in-game storytelling on immersion, need satisfaction, and affective theory of mind. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6, 646–652. doi:10.1177/1948550615578177
  • Boyd, B. (2009). On the origin of stories: Evolution, cognition, and fiction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Busselle, R., & Bilandzic, H. (2009). Measuring narrative engagement. Media Psychology, 12, 321–347. doi:10.1080/15213260903287259
  • Button, K. S., Ioannidis, J.P.A., Mokrysz, C., Nosek, B. A., Flint, J., Robinson, E.S.J., & Munafó, M. R. (2013). Power failure: Why small sample size undermines the reliability of neuroscience. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 14(5), 365–376. doi:10.1038/nrn3475
  • Callanan, V., & Rosenberger, J. S. (2015). Media, gender, and fear of crime. Criminal Justice Review, 40(3), 322–339. doi:10.1177/0734016815573308
  • Calzo, J. P., & Ward, L. M. (2009). Media exposure and viewers’ attitudes toward homosexuality: Evidence for mainstreaming or resonance? Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 53(2), 280–299. doi:10.1080/08838150902908049
  • Campbell, J. (1949). The hero with a thousand faces. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.
  • Carney, J., Wlodarski, R., & Dunbar, R. (2014). Inference or enaction? The impact of genre on the narrative processing of other minds. PloS One, 9(12), e114172. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0114172
  • Carruthers, P., & Smith, P.K. (Eds.). (1996). Theories of theories of mind. Cambridge,UK: Cambridge University Press.
  • Carver, C. S., Ganellen, R. J., Froming, W. J., & Chambers, W. (1983). Modeling: An analysis in terms of category accessibility. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19(5), 403–421. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(83)90019-7
  • Cassidy, K. W., Ball, L. V., Rourke, M. T., Werner, R. S., Feeny, N., Chu, J. Y., & Perkins, A. (1998). Theory of mind concepts in children's literature. Applied Psycholinguistics, 19(03), 463–470.
  • Cupchik, G. C. (2002). The evolution of psychical distance as an aesthetic concept. Culture & Psychology, 8(2), 155–187. doi:10.1177/1354067X02008002437
  • Djikic, M., Oatley, K., & Peterson, J. B. (2006). The bitter-sweet labor of emoting: The linguistic comparison of writers and physicists. Creativity Research Journal, 18(2), 191–197. doi:10.1207/s15326934crj1802_5
  • Djikic, M., Oatley, K., & Moldoveanu, M. C. (2013). Reading other minds: Effects of literature on empathy. Scientific Study of Literature, 3(1), 28–47. doi:10.1075/ssol.3.1
  • Dodell-Feder, D., Lincoln, S. H., Coulson, J. P., & Hooker, C. I. (2013). Using fiction to assess mental state understanding: A new task for assessing theory of mind in adults. PLoS One, 8(11), e81279. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0081279
  • Dodell-Feder, D., & Tamir, D. I. (in press). Fiction reading has a small positive impact on social cognition: A meta-analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General.
  • Domes, G., Heinrichs, M., Michel, A., Berger, C., & Herpertz, S. C. (2007). Oxytocin improves “mind-reading” in humans. Biological Psychiatry, 61(6), 731–733. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.07.015
  • Doyle, C. L. (1998). The writer tells: The creative process in the writing of literary fiction. Creativity Research Journal, 11(1), 29–37. doi:10.1207/s15326934crj1101_4
  • Dunbar, R. I. (2004). Gossip in evolutionary perspective. Review of General Psychology, 8(2), 100–110. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.8.2.100
  • Dyer, J. R., Shatz, M., & Wellman, H. M. (2000). Young children's storybooks as a source of mental state information. Cognitive Development, 15, 17–37. doi:10.1016/S0885-2014(00)00017-4
  • Epley, N., Waytz, A., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2007). On seeing human: A three-factor theory of anthropomorphism. Psychological Review, 114(4), 864–886. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.114.4.864
  • Ferstl, E. C., Neumann, J., Bogler, C., & von Cramon, D. Y. (2008). The extended language network: A meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies on text comprehension. Human Brain Mapping, 29(5), 581–593. doi:10.1002/(ISSN)1097-0193
  • Ferstl, E. C., & von Cramon, D. Y. (2002). What does the frontomedian cortex contribute to language processing: Coherence or theory of mind? NeuroImage, 17(3), 1599–1612. doi:10.1006/nimg.2002.1247
  • Fisher, N., & Happé, F. (2005). A training study of theory of mind and executive function in children with autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(6), 757–771. doi:10.1007/s10803-005-0022-9
  • Fiske, S. T., & Linville, P. W. (1980). What does the schema concept buy us? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 6(4), 543–557. doi:10.1177/014616728064006
  • Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (2013). Social cognition: From brains to culture. London, England: SAGE Publications.
  • Fong, K., Mullin, J. B., & Mar, R. A. (2013). What you read matters: The role of fiction genre in predicting interpersonal sensitivity. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 7(4), 370–376. doi:10.1037/a0034084
  • Foroni, F., & Mayr, U. (2005). The power of a story: New, automatic associations from a single reading of a short scenario. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12(1), 139–144. doi:10.3758/BF03196359
  • Fraley, R. C., & Marks, M. J. (2007). The null hypothesis significance testing debate and its implications for personality research. In R. W. Robins, R. C. Fraley, & R. Krueger (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in personality psychology (pp. 149–169). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
  • Funder, D. C. (1990). Process versus content in the study of judgmental accuracy. Psychological Inquiry, 1(3), 207–209. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0103_6
  • Furumi, F., & Koyasu, M. (2014). Role-play facilitates children’s mindreading of those with atypical color perception. Frontiers in Psychology, 5. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00817
  • Gerbner, G. (1969). Toward “cultural indicators”: The analysis of mass mediated public message systems. AV Communication Review, 17(2), 137–148.
  • Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1980). The “mainstreaming” of America: Violence profile no. 11. Journal of Communication, 30(3), 10–29. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1980.tb01987.x
  • Gerrig, R.J. (1993). Experiencing narrative worlds. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
  • Gilboa, A., & Marlatte, H. (2017). Neurobiology of schemas and schema-mediated memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 21, 618–631. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2017.04.013
  • Goldstein, T. R., & Winner, E. (2012). Enhancing empathy and theory of mind. Journal of Cognition and Development, 13(1), 19–37. doi:10.1080/15248372.2011.573514
  • Graziano, W. G., & Eisenberg, N. (1997). Agreeableness: A dimension of personality. Handbook of Personality Psychology, 18, 185–213.
  • Green, M. C. (2004). Transportation into narrative worlds: The role of prior knowledge and perceived realism. Discourse Processes, 38(2), 247–266. doi:10.1207/s15326950dp3802_5
  • Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2000). The role of transportation in the persuasiveness of public narratives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 701–721. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.701
  • Green, M. C., Strange, J. J., & Brock, T. C. (Eds.). (2002). Narrative impact. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Gregory, C., Lough, S., Stone, V., Erzinclioglu, S., Martin, L., Baron-Cohen, S., & Hodges, J. R. (2002). Theory of mind in patients with frontal variant frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer’s disease: Theoretical and practical implications. Brain, 125(4), 752–764. doi:10.1093/brain/awf079
  • Greitemeyer, T., & Mügge, D. O. (2014). Video games do affect social outcomes: A meta-analytic review of the effects of violent and prosocial video game play. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 40(5), 578–589. doi:10.1177/0146167213520459
  • Guajardo, N. R., & Watson, A. C. (2002). Narrative discourse and theory of mind development. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 163(3), 305–325. doi:10.1080/00221320209598686
  • Hakemulder, J. (2000). The moral laboratory: Experiments examining the effects of reading literature on social perception and moral self-concept (vol. 34). Amsterdam, NL: John Benjamins.
  • Hakemulder, J. (2008). Imagining what could happen: Effects of taking the role of a character on social cognition. In S. Zyngier, M. Bortolussi, A. Chesnokova, & J. Auracher (Eds.), Directions in empirical literary studies (pp. 139–160). Amsterdam, NL: John Benjamins.
  • Hale, C. M., & Tager-Flusberg, H. (2003). The influence of language on theory of mind: A training study. Developmental Science, 6(3), 346–359. doi:10.1111/desc.2003.6.issue-3
  • Hall, J. A., Goh, J. X., Mast, M. S., & Hagedorn, C. (2016). Individual differences in accurately judging personality from text. Journal of Personality, 84(4), 433–445. doi:10.1111/jopy.2016.84.issue-4
  • Happé, F., Cook, J. L., & Bird, G. (2017). The structure of social cognition: In(ter)dependence of sociocognitive processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 68, 243–267. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044046
  • Hassabis, D., Spreng, R. N., Rusu, A. A., Robbins, C. A., Mar, R. A., & Schacter, D. L. (2014). Imagine all the people: how the brain creates and uses personality models to predict behavior. Cerebral Cortex, 24, 1979–1987. doi:10.1093/cercor/bht042
  • Heider, F., & Simmel, M. (1944). An experimental study of apparent behavior. The American Journal of Psychology, 57(2), 243–249. doi:10.2307/1416950
  • Hemphill, J. F. (2003). Interpreting the magnitudes of correlation coefficients. American Psychologist, 58(1), 78–79. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.1.78
  • Hemphill, J. F. (2003). Interpreting the magnitudes of correlation coefficients. American Psychologist, 58, 78–80. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.1.78
  • Hodson, G., Choma, B. L., & Costello, K. (2009). Experiencing alien-nation: Effects of a simulation intervention on attitudes toward homosexuals. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 974–978. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.02.010
  • Hogan, P. C. (1997). Literary universals. Poetics Today, 18(2), 223–249. doi:10.2307/1773433
  • Hogan, P. C. (2003). The mind and its stories: Narrative universals and human emotion. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
  • Ickes, W. (Ed.). (1997). Empathic accuracy. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
  • John, O. P., & Srivastava, S. (1999). The big five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (2nd ed., pp. 102–138). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
  • Johnson, D. R. (2012). Transportation into a story increases empathy, prosocial behaviour, and perceptual bias toward fearful expressions. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(2), 150–155. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.10.005
  • Johnson, D. R., Jasper, D. M., Griffin, S., & Huffman, B. L. (2013). Reading narrative fiction reduces Arab-Muslim prejudice and offers a safe haven from intergroup anxiety. Social Cognition, 31(5), 578–598. doi:10.1521/soco.2013.31.5.578
  • Johnson, J. A., Carroll, J., Gottschall, J., & Kruger, D. (2011). Portrayal of personality in Victorian novels reflects modern research findings but amplifies the significance of agreeableness. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(1), 50–58. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.11.011
  • Kandalaft, M. R., Didehbani, N., Krawczyk, D. C., Allen, T. T., & Chapman, S. B. (2013). Virtual reality social cognition training for young adults with high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(1), 34–44. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1544-6
  • Kanske, P., Böckler, A., Trautwein, F. M., Parianen Lesemann, F. H., & Singer, T. (2016). Are strong empathizers better mentalizers? Evidence for independence and interaction between the routes of social cognition. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11(9), 1383–1392. doi:10.1093/scan/nsw052
  • Khorashad, B. S., Baron-Cohen, S., Roshan, G. M., Kazemian, M., Khazai, L., Aghili, Z., … Afkhamizadeh, M. (2015). The “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test: Investigation of psychometric properties and test–retest reliability of the Persian version. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders., 45(9), 2651–2666. doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2427-4
  • Kidd, D., Ongis, M., & Castano, E. (2016). On literary fiction and its effects on theory of mind. Scientific Study of Literature, 6(1), 42–58. doi:10.1075/ssol
  • Kidd, D. C., & Castano, E. (2013). Reading literary fiction improves theory of mind. Science, 342(6156), 377–380. doi:10.1126/science.1239918
  • Kidd, D. C., & Castano, E. (2017). Panero et al. (2016): Failure to replicate methods caused the failure to replicate results. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112(3), e1–e4. doi:10.1037/pspa0000072
  • Kirkland, R. A., Peterson, E., Baker, C. A., Miller, S., & Pulos, S. (2013). Meta-analysis reveals adult female superiority in “Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test”. North American Journal of Psychology, 15(1), 121–146.
  • Knoll, M., & Charman, T. (2000). Teaching false belief and visual perspective taking skills in young children: Can a theory of mind be trained? Child Study Journal, 30(4), 273.
  • Koopman, E.M.E. (2015). How texts about suffering trigger reflection: Genre, personal factors, and affective responses. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 9(4), 430–441. doi:10.1037/aca0000006
  • Koopman, E.M.E. (2016). Effects of “literariness” on emotions and on empathy and reflection after reading. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 10(1), 82–98. doi:10.1037/aca0000041
  • Koopman, E.M.E., & Hakemulder, F. (2015). Effects of literature on empathy and self-reflection: A theoretical-empirical framework. Journal of Literary Theory, 9(1), 79–111. doi:10.1515/jlt-2015-0005
  • Kudo, H., & Dunbar, R.I.M. (2001). Neocortex size and social network size in primates. Animal Behaviour, 62(4), 711–722. doi:10.1006/anbe.2001.1808
  • Kuiken, D., Miall, D. S., & Sikora, S. (2004). Forms of self-implication in literary reading. Poetics Today, 25(2), 171–203. doi:10.1215/03335372-25-2-171
  • Larsen, N. E., Lee, K., & Ganea, P. A. (in press). Do storybooks with anthropomorphized animal characters promote prosocial behaviors in young children? Developmental Science, e12590.
  • Lehne, M., Engel, P., Rohrmeier, M., Menninghaus, W., Jacobs, A. M., & Koelsch, S. (2015). Reading a suspenseful literary text activates brain areas related to social cognition and predictive inference. PLoS ONE, 10, e0124550. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0124550
  • Louwerse, M. M., Benesh, N., & Zhang, B. (2008). Computationally discriminating literary from non-literary texts. In S. Zyngier, M. Bortolussi, A. Chesnokova, & J. Auracher (Eds.), Directions in empirical literary studies (pp. 175–192). Amsterdam, NL: Benjamins.
  • Lu, H., Su, Y., & Wang, Q. (2008). Talking about others facilitates theory of mind in Chinese preschoolers. Developmental Psychology, 44(6), 1726–1736. doi:10.1037/a0013074
  • Mar, R. A. (2004). The neuropsychology of narrative: story comprehension, story production and their interrelation. Neuropsychologia, 42, 1414–1434. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2003.12.016
  • Mar, R. A. (2011). The neural bases of social cognition and story comprehension. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 103–134. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120709-145406
  • Mar, R. A., Oatley, K., Hirsh, J., Dela Paz, J., & Peterson, J. B. (2006). Bookworms versus nerds: Exposure to fiction versus non-fiction, divergent associations with social ability, and the simulation of fictional social worlds. Journal of Research in Personality, 40(5), 694–712. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2005.08.002
  • Mar, R. A., Kelley, W. M., Heatherton, T. F., & Macrae, C. N. (2007). Detecting agency from the biological motion of veridical versus animated agents. Social Cognitive And Affective Neuroscience, 2, 199–205. doi:10.1093/scan/nsm011
  • Mar, R. A., & Oatley, K. (2008). The function of fiction is the abstraction and simulation of social experience. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 173–192. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00073.x
  • Mar, R. A., Oatley, K., & Peterson, J. B. (2009). Exploring the link between reading fiction and empathy: Ruling out individual differences and examining outcomes. Communications, 34(4), 407–428. doi:10.1515/COMM.2009.025
  • Mar, R. A., Tackett, J. L., & Moore, C. (2010). Exposure to media and theory-of-mind development in preschoolers. Cognitive Development, 25(1),69–78. doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2009.11.002
  • Mar, R. A., Oatley, K., Djikic, M., & Mullin, J. (2011). Emotion and narrative fiction: Interactive influences before, during, and after reading. Cognition and Emotion, 25(5), 818–833. doi:10.1080/02699931.2010.515151
  • Mar, R. A., Spreng, R. N., & DeYoung, C. G. (2013). How to produce personality neuroscience research with high statistical power and low additional cost. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience, 13(3), 674–685. doi:10.3758/s13415-013-0202-6
  • Mar, R. A., & Rain, M. (2015). Narrative fiction and expository nonfiction differentially predict verbal ability. Scientific Studies of Reading, 19(6), 419–433. doi:10.1080/10888438.2015.1069296
  • Marsh, E. J., Meade, M. L., & Roediger, H. L. (2003). Learning facts from fiction. Journal of Memory and Language, 49(4), 519–536. doi:10.1016/S0749-596X(03)00092-5
  • Marsh, E. J., & Fazio, L. K. (2006). Learning errors from fiction: Difficulties in reducing reliance on fictional stories. Memory and Cognition, 34(5), 1141–1149. doi:10.3758/BF03193260
  • Mascaro, J. S., Rilling, J. K., Tenzin Negi, L., & Raison, C. L. (2012). Compassion meditation enhances empathic accuracy and related neural activity. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 8(1), 48–55. doi:10.1093/scan/nss095
  • Mason, R. A., & Just, M. A. (2009). The role of the theory-of-mind cortical network in the comprehension of narratives. Language and Linguistic Compass, 3(1), 157–174. doi:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00122.x
  • McCrae, R. R., & Sutin, A. R. (2009). Openness to experience. In M. R. Leary & R. H. Hoyle (Eds.), Handbook of Individual Differences in Social Behavior (pp. 257–273). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
  • Meyer, G. J., Finn, S. E., Eyde, L. D., Kay, G. G., Moreland, K. L., Dies, R. R., … Reed, G. M. (2001). Psychological testing and psychological assessment: A review of evidence and issues. American Psychologist, 56(2), 128–165. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.56.2.128
  • Meyer, M. L., Spunt, R. P., Berkman, E. T., Taylor, S. E., & Lieberman, M. D. (2012). Evidence for social working memory from a parametric functional MRI study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(6), 1883–1888. doi:10.1073/pnas.1121077109
  • Meyer, M. L., Taylor, S. E., & Lieberman, M. D. (2015). Social working memory and its distinctive link to social cognitive ability: An fMRI study. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 10(10), 1338–1347. doi:10.1093/scan/nsv065
  • Meyer, M. L., & Lieberman, M. D. (2016). Social working memory training improves perspective-taking accuracy. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7(4), 381–389. doi:10.1177/1948550615624143
  • Miall, D. S., & Kuiken, D. (2002). A feeling for fiction: Becoming what we behold. Poetics, 30(4), 221–241. doi:10.1016/S0304-422X(02)00011-6
  • Moessnang, C., Otto, K., Bilek, E., Schäfer, A., Baumeister, S., Hohmann, S., … Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2017). Differential responses of the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and right posterior superior temporal sulcus to spontaneous mentalizing. Human Brain Mapping, 38(8), 3791–3803. doi:10.1002/hbm.v38.8
  • Mol, S. E., & Bus, A. G. (2011). To read or not to read: A meta-analysis of print exposure from infancy to early adulthood. Psychological Bulletin, 137(2), 267–296. doi:10.1037/a0021890
  • Morgan, M., & Shanahan, J. (1997). Two decades of cultivation research: An appraisal and meta-analysis. Annals of the International Communication Association, 20(1), 1–45. doi:10.1080/23808985.1997.11678937
  • Morgan, M., & Shanahan, J. (2010). The state of cultivation. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54(2), 337–355. doi:10.1080/08838151003735018
  • Mumper, M. L., & Gerrig, R. J. (2017). Leisure reading and social cognition: a meta-analysis. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 11, 109–120. doi:10.1037/aca0000089
  • Nell, V. (1988). The psychology of reading for pleasure: Needs and gratifications. Reading Research Quarterly, 6–50. doi:10.2307/747903
  • Nettle, D., & Liddle, B. (2008). Agreeableness is related to social‐cognitive, but not social‐perceptual, theory of mind. European Journal of Personality, 22(4), 323–335. doi:10.1002/(ISSN)1099-0984
  • Nussbaum, M. C. (1995). Poetic justice: The literary imagination and public life. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
  • O’Guinn, T. C., & Shrum, L. J. (1997). The role of television in the construction of consumer reality. Journal of Consumer Research, 23(4), 278–294. doi:10.1086/209483
  • Oatley, K. (1994). A taxonomy of the emotions of literary response and a theory of identification in fictional narrative. Poetics, 23, 53–74. doi:10.1016/0304-422X(94)P4296-S
  • Oatley, K. (1999). Why fiction may be twice as true as fact: Fiction as cognitive and emotional simulation. Review of General Psychology, 3(2), 101–117. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.3.2.101
  • Oatley, K. (2002). Emotions and the story worlds of fiction. In M. C. Green, J. J. Strange, & T. C. Brock (Eds.), Narrative impact: Social and cognitive foundations (pp. 39–69). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Oatley, K. (2008). The mind’s flight simulator. The Psychologist, 21(12), 1030–1032.
  • Oatley, K. (2016). Fiction: Simulation of social worlds. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(8), 618–628. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2016.06.002
  • Oakley, B. F. M., Brewer, R, Bird, G., & Catmur, C. (2016). Theory of mind is not theory of emotion: a cautionary note on the reading the mind in the eyes test. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125, 818–823. doi:10.1037/abn0000182
  • Olderbak, S., Wilhelm, O., Olaru, G., Geiger, M., Brenneman, M. W., & Roberts, R. D. (2015). A psychometric analysis of the reading the mind in the eyes test: Toward a brief form for research and applied settings. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1–14. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01503
  • Oliver, M. B., & Raney, A. A. (2011). Entertainment as pleasurable and meaningful: Differentiating hedonic and eudaimonic motivations for entertainment consumption. Journal of Communication, 61(5), 984–1004. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01585.x
  • Olson, I. R., McCoy, D., Klobusicky, E., & Ross, L. A. (2013). Social cognition and the anterior temporal lobes: A review and theoretical framework. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 8(2), 123–133. doi:10.1093/scan/nss119
  • Ornaghi, V., Brockmeier, J., & Grazzani, I. (2014). Enhancing social cognition by training children in emotion understanding: A primary school study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 119, 26–39. doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2013.10.005
  • Paluck, E. L., & Green, D. P. (2009). Prejudice reduction: What works? A critical look at evidence from the field and the laboratory. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 339–367. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163607
  • Panero, M. E., Weisberg, D. S., Black, J., Goldstein, T. R., Barnes, J. L., Brownell, H., & Winner, E. (2016). Does reading a single passage of literary fiction really improve theory of mind? An attempt at replication. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111(5), e46–e54. doi:10.1037/pspa0000064
  • Panero, M. E., Weisberg, D. S., Black, J., Goldstein, T. R., Barnes, J. L., Brownell, H., & Winner, E. (2017). No support for the claim that literary fiction uniquely and immediately improves theory of mind: A reply to Kidd and Castano’s commentary on Panero et al. (2016).Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112(3), e5–e8. doi:10.1037/pspa0000079
  • Park, B. (1986). A method for studying the development of impressions of real people. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 907–917. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.5.907
  • Park, B., DeKay, M. L., & Kraus, S. (1994). Aggregating social behavior into person models: perceiver-induced consistency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66, 437–459. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.3.437
  • Pavias, M., van den Broek, P., Hickendorff, M., Beker, K., & Van Leijenhorst, L. (2016). Effects of social-cognitive processing demands and structural importance on narrative recall: Differences between children, adolescents, and adults. Discourse Processes, 53(5–6), 488–512. doi:10.1080/0163853X.2016.1171070
  • Perner, J., Ruffman, T., & Leekam, S. R. (1994). Theory of mind is contagious: You catch it from your sibs. Child Development, 65(4), 1228–1238. doi:10.2307/1131316
  • Pino, M. C., & Mazza, M. (2016). The use of “literary fiction” to promote mentalizing ability. PLoS ONE, 11, e0160254. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0160254
  • Potter, W. J. (2014). A critical analysis of cultivation theory. Journal of Communication, 64(6), 1015–1036. doi:10.1111/jcom.2014.64.issue-6
  • Prentice, D. A., Gerrig, R. J., & Bailis, D. S. (1997). What readers bring to the processing of fictional texts. Psychonomic Bulletin Review, 4(3), 416–420. doi:10.3758/BF03210803
  • Preston, S. D., & De Waal, F. B. (2002). Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 25(1), 1–20.
  • Preti, A., Vellante, M., & Petretto, D. R. (2017). The psychometric properties of the “Reading the Mind in the Eyes” test: An item response theory (IRT) analysis. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 22(3), 233–253. doi:10.1080/13546805.2017.1300091
  • Rapp, D. N. (2016). The consequences of reading inaccurate information. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(4), 281–285. doi:10.1177/0963721416649347
  • Reber, A. S. (1989). Implicit learning and tacit knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118(3), 219. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.118.3.219
  • Richard, F. D., Bond, C. F., Jr., & Stokes-Zoota, J. J. (2003). One hundred years of social psychology quantitatively described. Review of General Psychology, 7, 331–363. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.7.4.331
  • Richter, T., Appel, M., & Calio, F. (2014). Stories can change the self-concept. Social Influence, 9, 172–188. doi:10.1080/15534510.2013.799099
  • Richter, T., Schroeder, S., & Wöhrmann, B. (2009). You don’t have to believe everything you read: Background knowledge permits fast and efficient validation of information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(3), 538–558. doi:10.1037/a0014038
  • Rosenqvist, J., Lahti-Nuuttila, P., Holdnack, J., Kemp, S. L., & Laasonen, M. (2016). Relationship of TV watching, computer use, and reading to children’s neurocognitive functions. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 46, 11–21. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2016.04.006
  • Ruffman, T., Perner, J., Naito, M., Parkin, L., & Clements, W. A. (1998). Older (but not younger) siblings facilitate false belief understanding. Developmental Psychology, 34(1), 161–174. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.34.1.161
  • Rumelhart, D. E. (1975). Notes on a schema for stories. In D. G. Bobrow & A. Collins (Eds.), Representation and understanding: Studies in cognitive science (pp. 2–34). New York, NY: Academic Press.
  • Samur, D., Tops, M., & Koole, S. L. (2017). Does a single session of reading literary fiction prime enhanced mentalising performance? Four replication experiments of Kidd and Castano (2013). Cognition and Emotion, 27, 1–15.
  • Santiesteban, I., White, S., Cook, J., Gilbert, S. J., Heyes, C., & Bird, G. (2012). Training social cognition: From imitation to theory of mind. Cognition, 122(2), 228–235. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.11.004
  • Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P. (1995). Knowledge and memory: The real story. In J. R. S. Wyer (Ed.), Advances in social cognition (vol. 8, pp. 1–85). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Schellenberg, E. G. (2004). Music lessons enhance IQ. Psychological Science, 15(8), 511–514. doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00711.x
  • Shrum, L. J. (2002). Media consumption and perceptions of social reality: Effects and underlying processes. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 66–96). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  • Siddiqui, S., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (1998). The influence of print exposure on syllogistic reasoning and knowledge of mental-state verbs. Scientific Studies of Reading, 2, 81–96. doi:10.1207/s1532799xssr0201_4
  • Singer, T. (2006). The neuronal basis and ontogeny of empathy and mind reading: Review of literature and implications for future research. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 30(6), 855–863. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.06.011
  • Slaughter, V., & Gopnik, A. (1996). Conceptual coherence in the child’s theory of mind: Training children to understand belief. Child Development, 67(6), 2967–2988. doi:10.2307/1131762
  • Spreng, R. N., & Mar, R. A. (2012). I remember you: A role for memory in social cognition and the functional neuroanatomy of their interaction. Brain Research, 1428, 43–50. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.12.024
  • Stavrova, O., & Meckel, A. (2017). Perceiving emotion in non-social targets: The effect of trait empathy on emotional contagion through art. Motivation and Emotion, 41, 492–509. doi:10.1007/s11031-017-9619-5
  • Steerneman, P., Jackson, S., Pelzer, H., & Muris, P. (1996). Children with social handicaps: An intervention programme using a theory of mind approach. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 1(2), 251–263. doi:10.1177/1359104596012006
  • Stein, N. L., & Glenn, C. G. (1975). An analysis of story comprehension in elementary school children: A test of a schema.ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 121 474.
  • Stein, N. L., & Trabasso, T. (1981). What’s in a story: An approach to comprehension and instruction (Center for the Study of Reading Technical Report; no. 200). University of Illinois, US: Center for the Study of Reading.
  • Strube, M. J. (1991). Multiple determinants and effect size: A more general method of discourse. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(6), 1024–1027. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.61.6.1024
  • Swettenham, J. (1996). Can children with autism be taught to understand false belief using computers? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37(2), 157–165. doi:10.1111/jcpp.1996.37.issue-2
  • Tamir, D. I., Bricker, A. B., Dodell-Feder, D., & Mitchell, J. P. (2016). Reading fiction and reading minds: The role of the default network. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11(2), 215–224. doi:10.1093/scan/nsv114
  • Teding van Berkhout, E., & Malouff, J. M. (2016). The efficacy of empathy training: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(1), 32–41. doi:10.1037/cou0000093
  • Tellegen, A., & Atkinson, G. (1974). Openness to absorbing and self-altering experiences (“absorption”), a trait related to hypnotic susceptibility. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 83(3), 268–277. doi:10.1037/h0036681
  • Thornton, M. A., & Mitchell, J. P. (2017). Consistent neural activity patterns represent personally familiar people. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 29, 1583–1594. doi:10.1162/jocn_a_01151
  • Till, B., Truong, F., Mar, R. A., & Niederkrotenthaler, T. (2016). Blurred world view: A study on the relationship between television viewing and the perception of the justice system. Death Studies, 40, 538–546. doi:10.1080/07481187.2016.1186761
  • Trabasso, T., & van den Broek, P. W. (1985). Causal thinking and the representation of narrative events. Journal of Memory and Language, 24(5), 612–630. doi:10.1016/0749-596X(85)90049-X
  • Tsai, J. L., Louie, J. Y., Chen, E. E., & Uchida, Y. (2007). Learning what feelings to desire: Socialization of ideal affect through children’s storybooks. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(1), 17–30. doi:10.1177/0146167206292749
  • Tsunemi, K., Tamura, A., Ogawa, S., Isomura, T., Ito, H., Ida, M., & Masataka, N. (2014). Intensive exposure to narrative in story books as a possibly effective treatment of social perspective-taking in schoolchildren with autism. Frontiers in Psychology, 5(2), 1–8. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00002
  • Turner-Brown, L. M., Perry, T. D., Dichter, G. S., Bodfish, J. W., & Penn, D. L. (2008). Brief report: Feasibility of social cognition and interaction training for adults with high functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(9), 1777–1784. doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0545-y
  • Valk, S. L., Bernhardt, B. C., Böckler, A., Trautwein, F. M., Kanske, P., & Singer, T. (2017). Socio-cognitive phenotypes differentially modulate large-scale structural covariance networks. Cerebral Cortex, 27(2), 1358–1368.
  • Valkenburg, P. M., & Peter, J. (2013). The differential susceptibility to media effects model. Journal of Communication, 63(2), 221–243. doi:10.1111/jcom.2013.63.issue-2
  • Valkenburg, P. M., Peter, J., & Walther, J. B. (2016). Media effects: Theory and research. Annual Review of Psychology, 67, 315–338. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-122414-033608
  • Ward, L. M. (2003). Understanding the role of entertainment media in the sexual socialization of American youth: A review of empirical research. Developmental Review, 23(3), 347–388. doi:10.1016/S0273-2297(03)00013-3
  • Ward, L. M. (2016). Media and sexualization: State of empirical research, 1995–2015. The Journal of Sex Research, 53(4–5), 560–577. doi:10.1080/00224499.2016.1142496
  • Warrier, V., Grasby, K. L., Uzefovsky, F., Toro, R., Smith, P., Chakrabarti, B., … Baron-Cohen, S. (2017). Genome-wide meta-analysis of cognitive empathy: Heritability, and correlates with sex, neuropsychiatric conditions and cognition. Molecular Psychiatry, mp2017122.
  • Waugh, C., & Peskin, J. (2015). Improving the social skills of children with HFASD: An intervention study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(9), 2961–2980. doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2459-9
  • Westfall, J., & Yarkoni, T. (2016). Statistically controlling for confounding constructs is harder than you think. PLOS ONE, 11, e0152719.
  • Wulandini, I. A., & Handayani, E. (2018). The effect of literary fiction on school-aged children’s theory of mind (ToM). Diversity in Unity: Perspectives from Psychology and Behavioral Sciences.
  • Zunshine, L. (2006). Why we read fiction: Theory of mind and the novel. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University Press.

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.