How Does Self-Complexity of Identity Moderate the Relationship between Strain and Crime?

REFERENCES

• Agnew, Robert. 1985. “A Revised Strain Theory of Delinquency.” Social Forces 64:151–167.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agnew, Robert.. 1989. “A Longitudinal Test of the Revised General Strain Theory.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 5:373–387.
   Google Scholar
• Agnew, Robert.. 1991. “The Interactive Effects of Peer Variables on Delinquency.” Criminology 29:47–72.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agnew, Robert.. 1992. “Foundation for a General Strain Theory of Crime and Delinquency.” Criminology 30:47–87.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agnew, Robert.. 2001. “Building on the Foundation of General Strain Theory: Specifying the Types of Strain Most Likely to Lead to Crime and Delinquency.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 38:319–361.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agnew, Robert.. 2006. Pressured into Crime: An Overview of General Strain Theory. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury Publishing Company.
   Google Scholar
• Agnew, Robert, Timothy Brezina, John Paul Wright, and Francis T. Cullen. 2002. “Strain, Personality Traits, and Delinquency: Extending General Strain Theory.” Criminology 40:43–71.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agnew, Robert, Cesar Rebellon, and Sherod Thaxton. 2000. “A General Strain Theory Approach to Families and Delinquency.” Pp. 113–138 in Families, Crime and Criminal Justice, Contemporary Perspectives in Family Research Vol. 2, edited by Greer Litton Fox and Michael L. Benson. New York: JAI Press.
   Google Scholar
• Agnew, Robert and Helene White. 1992. “An Empirical Test of General Strain Theory.” Criminology 30:475–499.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ai, Chunrong and Edward C. Norton. 2003. “Interaction Terms in Logit and Probit Models.” Economics Letters 80:123–129.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Akers, Ronald L. 1998. Social Learning and Social Structure: A General Theory of Crime and Deviance. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Aseltine, Robert H., Susan Gore, and Jennifer Gordon. 2000. “Life Stress, Anger and Anxiety, and Delinquency: An Empirical Test of General Strain Theory.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior 41:256–275.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bao, Wan-Ning, Ain Haas, and Yijun Pi. 2004. “Life Strain, Negative Emotions, and Delinquency: An Empirical Test of General Strain Theory in the People’s Republic of China.” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 48:281–297.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron, Stephen W. 2004. “General Strain, Street Youth and Crime: A Test of Agnew’s Revised Theory.” Criminology 42:457–483.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron, Stephen W. and Timothy F. Hartnagel. 2002. “Street Youth and Labor Market Strain.” Journal of Criminal Justice 30:519–533.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker, Howard S. 1963. Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. London: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Block, Jack. 1961. “Ego Identity, Role Variability, and Adjustment.” Journal of Consulting Psychology 25:392–397.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Botchkovar, Ekaterina V., Charles R. Tittle, and Olena Antonaccio. 2009. “General Strain Theory: Additional Evidence Using Cross-Cultural Data.” Criminology 47:131–176.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brezina, Timothy. 1996. “Adapting to Strain: An Examination of Delinquent Coping Responses.” Criminology 34:39–60.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brezina, Timothy.. 1998. “Adolescent Maltreatment and Delinquency: The Question of Intervening Processes.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 35:71–99.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Broidy, Lisa. 2001. “A Test of General Strain Theory.” Criminology 39:9–35.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, Christina M. and Allen R. McConnell. 2009. “Effort or Escape: Self-Concept Structure Determines Self-regulatory Behavior.” Self and Identity 8:365–377.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, Gary and Eshkol Rafaeli. 2007. “Components of Self-Complexity as Buffers for Depressed Mood.” Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly 21:310–333.
   Google Scholar
• Buis, Maarten L. 2010. “Interpretation of Interactions in Non-Linear Models.” The Stata Journal 10:305–308.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, Jennifer D., Barry Chew, and Linda S. Scratchley. 1991. “Cognitive and Emotional Reactions to Daily Events: The Effects of Self-Esteem and Self-Complexity.” Journal of Personality 59:473–505.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Capowich, George E., Paul Mazerolle, and Alex Piquero. 2001. “General Strain Theory, Situational Anger, and Social Networks: An Assessment of Conditioning Influences.” Journal of Criminal Justice 29:445–461.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caspi, Avshalom, Terrie E. Moffitt, Phil A. Silva, Magda Stoughamer-Loeber, Robert F. Krueger, and Pamela S. Schmutte. 1994. “Are Some People Crime-Prone? Replications of the Personality-Crime Relationship Across Countries, Genders, Races, and Methods.” Criminology 32:163–195.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cheung, Nicole Wai Ting and Yuet W. Cheung. 2010. “Strain, Self-Control, and Gender Differences in Delinquency Among Chinese Adolescents.” Sociological Perspectives 53:321–345.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, Lawrence H., Natalia Pane, and Hugh S. Smith. 1997. “Complexity of the Interpersonal Self and Affective Reactions to Interpersonal Stressors in Life and in the Laboratory.” Cognitive Therapy and Research 21:387–407.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Couper, Mick P. 2000. “Web Surveys: A Review of Issues and Approaches.” Public Opinion Quarterly 64:464–494.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawson, Jeremy F. and Andreas W. Richter. 2006. “Probing Three-Way Interactions in Moderated Multiple Regression: Development and Application of a Slope Difference Test.” Journal of Applied Psychology 91:917–926.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Coster, Stacy and Karen Heimer. 2001. “The Relationship Between Law Violation and Depression: An Interactionist Analysis.” Criminology 39:799–836.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dixon, Thomas M. and Roy F. Baumeister. 1991. “Escaping the Self: The Moderating Effect of Self-Complexity.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17:363–368.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donahue, Eileen M., Richard W. Robins, Brent W. Roberts, and Oliver P. John. 1993. “The Divided Self: Concurrent and Longitudinal Effects of Psychological Adjustment and Social Roles on Self-Concept Differentiation.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 64:834–846.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donnellan, M. Brent, Rand D. Conger, and Becky G. Burzette. 2005. “Criterion-Related Validity, Self-Other Agreement and Longitudinal Analyses for the Iowa Personality Questionnaire: A Short Alternative to the MPQ.” Journal of Research in Personality 39:458–485.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eitle, David and R. Jay Turner. 2002. “Exposure to Community Violence and Young Adult Crime: The Effects of Witnessing Violence, Traumatic Victimization, and Other Stressful Events.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 39:214–237.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eitle, David and R. Jay Turner. 2003. “Stress Exposure, Race, and Young Adult Male Crime.” The Sociological Quarterly 44:243–269.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eitle, Tamela McNulty, David Eitle, and Michelle Johnson-Jennings.2013. “General Strain Theory and Substance Use Among American Indian Adolescents.” Race and Justice 3:3–30.
   Google Scholar
• Elliot, Delbert S., David Huizinga, and Suzanne S. Ageton. 1985. Explaining Delinquency and Drug Use. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Elliot, Delbert S., David Huizinga, and Scott Menard. 1989. Multiple Problem Youth: Delinquency, Substance Use, and Mental Health Problems. New York: Springer-Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Gallupe, Owen and Stephen W. Baron. 2009. “Street Youth, Relational Strain, and Drug Use.” Journal of Drug Issues 39:523–546.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ganem, Natasha M. 2010. “The Role of Negative Emotion in General Strain Theory.” Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 26:167–185.
   Google Scholar
• Gottfredson, Michael R. and Travis Hirschi. 1990. A General Theory of Crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gramzow, Richard H., Constantine Sedikides, A. T. Panter, and Chester A. Insko. 2000. “Aspects of Self-Regulation and Self-Structure as Predictors of Perceived Emotional Distress.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26:188–205.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hamilton, Sandra and Beverly I. Fagot. 1988. “Chronic Stress and Coping Styles: A Comparison of Male and Female Undergraduates.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55:819–823.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hay, Carter. 2003. “Family Strain, Gender, and Delinquency.” Sociological Perspectives 46:107–135.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hay, Carter and Ryan Meldrum. 2010. “Bullying Victimization and Adolescent Self-Harm: Testing Hypotheses from General Strain Theory.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 39:446–459.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haynie, Dana L. 2002. “Friendship Networks and Delinquency: The Relative Nature of Peer Delinquency.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 18:99–134.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirschi, Travis. 1969. Causes of Delinquency. Berkeley: University of California Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hoetker, Glenn. 2007. “The Use of Logit and Probit Models in Strategic Management Research: Critical Issues.” Strategic Management Journal 28:331–343.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman, John P. and Felicia Gray Cerbone. 1999. “Stressful Life Events and Delinquency Escalation in Early Adolescence.” Criminology 37:343–373.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman, John P. and John P. Miller. 1998. “A Latent Variable Analysis of General Strain Theory.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 14:83–110.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huizinga, David and Delbert S. Elliot. 1986. “Reassessing the Reliability and Validity of Self-Report Delinquency Measures.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 2:293–327.
   Google Scholar
• Jaccard, James and Robert Turrisi. 2003. Interaction Effects in Multiple Regression (Second ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Jang, Sung Joon. 2007. “Gender Differences in Strain, Negative Emotions, and Coping Behaviors: A General Strain Theory Approach.” Justice Quarterly 24:523–553.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jang, Sung Joon and Byron R. Johnson. 2003. “Strain, Negative Emotions, and Deviant Coping Among African Americans: A Test of General Strain Theory.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 19:79–105.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jang, Sung Joon and Byron R. Johnson. 2005. “Gender, Religiosity, and Reactions to Strain Among African Americans.” The Sociological Quarterly 46:323–357.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jang, Sung Joon and Jason A. Lyons. 2006. “Strain, Social Support, and Retreatism Among African Americans.” Journal of Black Studies 37:251–274.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalthoff, Roger A. and Robert A. Neimeyer. 1993. “Self-Complexity and Psychological Distress: A Test of the Buffering Model.” International Journal of Personal Construct Psychology 6:327–349.
   Google Scholar
• Kaufman, Joanne. 2009. “Gendered Responses to Serious Strain: The Argument for a General Strain Theory of Deviance.” Justice Quarterly 26:410–444.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kenna, Cheryl E. and Alvin G. Burstein. 2005. “Tellegen’s Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire in Violent and Nonviolent Women Criminals.” Applied Psychology in Criminal Justice 1:110–137.
   Google Scholar
• Koch, Erika J. and James A. Shepperd. 2004. “Is Self-Complexity Linked to Better Coping? A Review of the Literature.” Journal of Personality 72:727–760.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kohn, Paul M., Kathryn LaFreniere, and Maria Gurevich. 1990. “The Inventory of College Students’ Recent Life Experiences: A Decontaminated Hassles Scale for a Special Population.” Journal of Behavioral Medicine 13:619–630.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lemert, Edwin McCarthy. 1951. Social Pathology: A Systematic Approach to the Theory of Sociopathic Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Lemert, Edwin McCarthy. 1972. Human Deviance, Social Problems, and Social Control. Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Levine, Murray and David V. Perkins. 1980. “Tailor Making a Life Events Scale.” Paper presented at the American Psychological Association, August, Montreal, Canada.
   Google Scholar
• Linville, Patricia W. 1985. “Self-Complexity and Affective Extremity: Don’t Put All of Your Eggs in One Cognitive Basket.” Social Cognition 3:94–120.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Linville, Patricia W.. 1987. “Self-Complexity as a Cognitive Buffer Against Stress-Related Illness and Depression.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52:663–676.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu, Xiaoru. 2000. “The Conditional Effect of Peer Groups on the Relationship Between Parental Labeling and Youth Delinquency.” Sociological Perspectives 43:499–514.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Long, Scott J. 1997. Regression Models for Categorical and Limited Dependent Variables. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
   Google Scholar
• Markus, Hazel and Elissa Wurf. 1987. “The Dynamic Self-Concept: A Social Psychological Perspective.” Annual Review of Psychology 38:299–337.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsueda, Ross L. 1992. “Reflected Appraisals, Parental Labeling, and Delinquent Behavior: Specifying a Symbolic Interaction Theory.” American Journal of Sociology 97:1577–1611.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsueda, Ross L. and Kathleen Anderson. 1998. “The Dynamics of Delinquent Peers and Delinquent Behavior.” Criminology 36:269–308.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matthews, Shelley Keith. 2011. “Self-Complexity and Crime: Extending General Strain Theory.” Justice Quarterly 28:861–902.
   Google Scholar
• Mazerolle, Paul, Velmer S. Burton, Jr., Francis T. Cullen, David T. Evans, and Gary L. Payne. 2000. “Strain, Anger, and Delinquent Adaptations: Specifying General Strain Theory.” Journal of Criminal Justice 28:89–101.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazerolle, Paul and Jeff Maahs. 2000. “General Strain and Delinquency: An Alternative Examination of Conditioning Influences.” Justice Quarterly 17:753–778.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazerolle, Paul and Alex Piquero. 1997. “Violent Responses to Strain: An Examination of Conditioning Influences.” Violence and Victims 12:323–342.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mazerolle, Paul and Alex Piquero. 1998. “Linking Exposure to Strain With Anger: An Investigation of Deviant Adaptations.” Journal of Criminal Justice 26:195–211.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McConnell, Allen R., Robert J. Rydell, and Christina M. Brown. 2009a. “On the Experience of Self-Relevant Feedback: How Self-Concept Organization Influences Affective Responses and Self-Evaluations.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 45:695–707.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McConnell, Allen R., Laura M. Strain, Christina M. Brown, and Robert J. Rydell. 2009b. “The Simple Life: On the Benefits of Low Self-Complexity.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 35:823–835.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller, Joshua D. and Donald Lynam. 2001. “Structural Models of Personality and Their Relation to Antisocial Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Review.” Criminology 39:765–798.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moon, Byongook, Merry Morash, Cynthia Perez McCluskey, and Hye-Won Hwang. 2009. “A Comprehensive Test of General Strain Theory: Key Strains, Situational- and Trait-Based Negative Emotions, Conditioning Factors, and Delinquency.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 46:182–212.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Niedenthal, Paula M., Marc B. Setterlund, and Mary Beth Wherry. 1992. “Possible Self-Complexity and Affective Reactions to Goal-Relevant Evaluation.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63:5–16.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ostrowsky, Michael K. and Steven F. Messner. 2005. “Explaining Crime for a Young Adult Population: An Application of General Strain Theory.” Journal of Criminal Justice 33:463–476.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paternoster, Raymond and Paul Mazerolle. 1994. “General Strain Theory and Delinquency: A Replication and Extension.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 31:235–263.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piquero, Nicole Leeper and Miriam D. Sealock. 2000. “Generalizing General Strain Theory: An Explanation of an Offending Population. ”Justice Quarterly 17:449–484.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piquero, Nicole Leeper and Miriam D. Sealock. 2004. “Gender and General Strain Theory: A Preliminary Test of Broidy and Agnew’s Gender/GST Hypotheses.” Justice Quarterly 21:125–158.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rafaeli-Mor, Eshkol, Ian H. Gotlib, and William Revelle. 1999. “The Meaning and Measurement of Self-Complexity.” Personality and Individual Differences 27:341–356.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rafaeli-Mor, Eshkol and Jennifer Steinberg. 2002. “Self-Complexity and Well-Being: A Review and Research Synthesis.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 6:31–58.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Renaud, Jeanette M. and Allen R. McConnell. 2002. “Organization of the Self-Concept and the Suppression of Self-Relevant Thoughts.” Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 38:79–86.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robbers, Monica L. P. 2004. “Revisiting the Moderating Effect of Social Support on Strain: A Gendered Test.” Sociological Inquiry 74:546–569.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson, Angela R., Judith A. Stein, and Lacey Schaefer-Rohleder. 2010. “Effects of Hurricane Katrina and Other Adverse Life Events on Adolescent Female Offenders: A Test of General Strain Theory.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 47:469–495.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ryan, Richard M., Jennifer G. LaGuardia, and Laird J. Rawsthorne. 2005. “Self-Complexity and the Authenticity of Self-Aspects: Effects on Well-Being and Resilience to Stressful Events.” North American Journal of Psychology 7:431–448.
   Google Scholar
• Sieber, Sam D. 1974. “Toward a Theory of Role Accumulation.” American Sociological Review 39:567–578.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sigfusdottir, Inga-Dora, George Farkas, and Eric Silver. 2004. “The Role of Depressed Mood and Anger in the Relationship Between Family Conflict and Delinquent Behavior.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 33:509–522.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simons, Ronald L., Yi-Fu Chen, Eric A. Stewart, and Gene H. Brody. 2003. “Incidents of Discrimination and Risk for Delinquency: A Longitudinal Test of Strain Theory with an African American Sample.” Justice Quarterly 20:827–854.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, Hugh S. and Lawrence H. Cohen. 1993. “Self-Complexity and Reactions to a Relationship Breakup.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 12:367–384.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steele, Claude M. 1997. “A Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance.” American Psychologist 52:613–629.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steinberg, Jennifer, Suzanne L. Pineles, Wendi L. Gardner, and Susan Mineka. 2003. “Self-Complexity as a Potential Cognitive Buffer Among Abused Women.” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 22:560–579.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stryker, Sheldon. 1980. Symbolic Interactionism. Menlo, Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings.
   Google Scholar
• Tellegen, Auke. 1982. “Brief Manual for the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire.” Unpublished manuscript: University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
   Google Scholar
• Thoits, Peggy A. 1983. “Multiple Identities and Psychological Well-Being: A Reformulation and Test of the Social Isolation Hypothesis.” American Sociological Review 48:174–187.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thoits, Peggy A.. 1995. “Stress, Coping, and Social Support Processes: Where Are We? What Next?” Journal of Health and Social Behavior (Extra Issue):53–79.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Selm, Martine and Nicholas W. Jankowski. 2006. “Conducting Online Surveys.” Quality and Quantity 40:435–456.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walls, Melissa L., Constance L. Chapple, and Kurt D. Johnson. 2007. “Strain, Emotion, and Suicide Among American Indian Youth.” Deviant Behavior 28:219–246.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warr, Mark. 2002. Companions in Crime: The Social Aspects of Criminal Conduct. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Woolfolk, Robert L., James Novalany, Michael A. Gara, Lesley A. Allen, and Monica Polino. 1995. “Self-Complexity, Self-Evaluation, and Depression: An Examination of Form and Content Within the Self-Schema.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68:1108–1120.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yetter, Georgette and Kristen Capaccioli. 2010. “Differences in Responses to Web and Paper Surveys Among School Professionals.” Behavior Research Methods 42:266–272.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar