References
- American Academy of Pediatrics, Council on School Health. (2013). Out-of-school Suspensions and Expulsions. Accessed on October 7, 2020: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2013/02/20/peds.2012-3932
- American Psychological Association Zero Tolerance Task Force. 2008. “Are Zero Tolerance Policies Effective in the Schools?: An Evidentiary Review and Recommendations.” The American Psychologist 63(9):852.
- Becker, H. 1963. Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance. London, UK: Free Press Glencoe.
- Brame, R., M. G. Turner, R. Paternoster, and S. D. Bushway. 2012. “Cumulative Prevalence of Arrest from Ages 8 to 23 in a National Sample.” Pediatrics 129 (1):21–27.
- Branson, C. E., C. L. Baetz, S. M. Horwitz, and K. E. Hoagwood. 2017. “Trauma-informed Juvenile Justice Systems: A Systematic Review of Definitions and Core Components.” Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy 9 (6):635.
- Brunson, R. K. 2007. ““Police Don’t like Black People”: African-American Young Men’s Accumulated Police Experiences.” Criminology & Public Policy 6 (1):71–101.
- Calvert, C. M., S. S. Brady, and R. Jones-Webb. 2020. “Perceptions of Violent Encounters between Police and Young Black Men across Stakeholder Groups.” Journal of Urban Health 97: 279–295.
- Carter, P. L., R. Skiba, M. I. Arredondo, and M. Pollock. 2017. “You Can’t Fix What You Don’t Look At: Acknowledging Race in Addressing Racial Discipline Disparities.” Urban Education 52 (2):207–35.
- Cook, P. J., D. C. Gottfredson, and C. Na. 2010. “School Crime Control and Prevention.” Crime and Justice 39 (1):313–440.
- Curran, F. C., B. W. Fisher, S. Viano, and A. Kupchik. 2019. “Why and When Do School Resource Officers Engage in School Discipline? The Role of Context in Shaping Disciplinary Involvement.” American Journal of Education 126 (1):33–63.
- Davis, E., A. Whyde, and L. Langton. 2018. “Contacts between Police and the Public, 2015.” Bureau of Justice Statistics. US Department of Justice.
- Del Toro, J., T. Lloyd, K. S. Buchanan, S. J. Robins, L. Z. Bencharit, M. G. Smiedt, … P. A. Goff. 2019. “The Criminogenic and Psychological Effects of Police Stops on Adolescent Black and Latino Boys.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 116 (17):8261–68.
- Dickman, S. J. (1990). Functional and dysfunctional impulsivity: personality and cognitive correlates. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58 (1): 95–102.
- Fabiano, G. A. and S. W. Evans. 2019. “Introduction to the Special Issue of School Mental Health on Best Practices in Effective Multi-tiered Intervention Frameworks.” School Mental Health 11 (1):1–3.
- Fine, A. and E. Cauffman. 2015. “Race and Justice System Attitude Formation during the Transition to Adulthood.” Journal of Developmental and Life-Course Criminology 1 (4):325–49.
- Geller, A. 2017. Policing America’s Children: Police Contact and Consequences among Teens in Fragile Families (No. Wp18-02-ff). Princeton, NJ: Center for Research on Child Wellbeing.
- Geller, A. and J. Fagan. 2019. “Police Contact and the Legal Socialization of Urban Teens.” RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences 5 (1):26–49.
- Geller, A., J. Fagan, T. Tyler, and B. G. Link. 2014. “Aggressive Policing and the Mental Health of Young Urban Men.” American Journal of Public Health 104 (12):2321–27.
- González, T., H. Sattler, and A. J. Buth. 2019. “New Directions in Whole‐school Restorative Justice Implementation.” Conflict Resolution Quarterly 36 (3):207–20.
- Gottfredson, D. C., S. Crosse, Z. Tang, E. L. Bauer, M. A. Harmon, C. A. Hagen, and A. D. Greene. 2020. “Effects of School Resource Officers on School Crime and Responses to School Crime.” Criminology & Public Policy 19 (3):905–40.
- Harper, K., R. Ryberg, and D. Temkin (2019). Black Students and Students with Disabilities Remain More Likely to Receive Out-of-school Suspensions, despite Overall Declines. Child Trends: https://www.childtrends.org/publications/black-students-disabilities-out-of-school-suspensions.
- Helton, J. J., Jackson, D. B., Boutwell, B. B., & Vaughn, M. G. (2019). Household food insecurity and parent-to-child aggression. Child maltreatment, 24(2): 213–221.
- Hemez, P., J. Brent, and T. Mowen. 2020. “Exploring the School-to-prison Pipeline. How School Suspensions Influence Incarceration during Young Adulthood.” Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 18 (3):235–55.
- Hirschfield, P. J. 2018. “Schools and Crime.” Annual Review of Criminology 1:149–69.
- Hofer, M. S., S. R. Womack, and M. N. Wilson. 2020. “An Examination of the Influence of Procedurally Just Strategies on Legal Cynicism among Urban Youth Experiencing Police Contact.” Journal of Community Psychology 48 (1):104–23.
- Homer, E. M. and B. W. Fisher. 2020. “Police in Schools and Student Arrest Rates across the United States: Examining Differences by Race, Ethnicity, and Gender.” Journal of School Violence 19 (2):192–204.
- Jackson, D. B., A. Testa, and M. G. Vaughn. 2020a. “Low Self-control and the Adolescent Police Stop: Intrusiveness, Emotional Response, and Psychological Well-being.” Journal of Criminal Justice 66:101635.
- Jackson, D. B., A. Testa, and M. G. Vaughn. 2020b. “Low Self-control and Legal Cynicism among At-risk Youth: An Investigation into Direct and Vicarious Police Contact.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 57 (6):741–83.
- Jackson, D. B., A. Testa, M. G. Vaughn, and D. C. Semenza. 2020. “Police Stops and Sleep Behaviors among At-risk Youth.” Sleep Health 6 (4):435–41.
- Jackson, D. B., C. Fahmy, M. G. Vaughn, and A. Testa. 2019. “Police Stops among At-risk Youth: Repercussions for Mental Health.” Journal of Adolescent Health 65 (5):627–32.
- Jacobsen, W. C., G. T. Pace, and N. G. Ramirez. 2019. “Punishment and Inequality at an Early Age: Exclusionary Discipline in Elementary School.” Social Forces 97 (3):973–98.
- Karlson, K. B., A. Holm, and R. Breen. 2012. “Comparing Regression Coefficients between Same-sample Nested Models Using Logit and Probit: A New Method.” Sociological Methodology 42 (1):286–313.
- Kessler, R. C., Andrews, G., Mroczek, D., Ustun, B., & Wittchen, H. U. (1998). The World Health Organization composite international diagnostic interview short‐form (CIDI‐SF). International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research, 7(4): 171–185.
- Kupchik, A. and T. J. Catlaw. 2015. “Discipline and Participation: The Long-term Effects of Suspension and School Security on the Political and Civic Engagement of Youth.” Youth & Society 47 (1):95–124.
- Lemert, E. M. 1951. Social Pathology; A Systematic Approach to the Theory of Sociopathic Behavior. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
- Liberman, A. M., D. S. Kirk, and K. Kim. 2014. “Labeling Effects of First Juvenile Arrests: Secondary Deviance and Secondary Sanctioning.” Criminology 52 (3):345–70.
- Losen, D. J. and R. J. Skiba. 2010. Suspended Education: Urban Middle Schools in Crisis. Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center.
- Losen, D. J. and T. E. Martinez. 2013. Out of School and off Track: The Overuse of Suspensions in American Middle and High Schools. Retrieved from. Los Angeles, CA: UCLA Center for Civil Rights Remedies the Civil Rights Project. (https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED541735.pdf).
- Mittleman, J. 2018. “A Downward Spiral? Childhood Suspension and the Path to Juvenile Arrest.” Sociology of Education 91 (3):183–204.
- Monahan, K. C., S. VanDerhei, J. Bechtold, and E. Cauffman. 2014. “From the School Yard to the Squad Car: School Discipline, Truancy, and Arrest.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 43 (7):1110–22.
- Mongan, P. and R. Walker. 2012. ““The Road to Hell Is Paved with Good Intentions”: A Historical, Theoretical, and Legal Analysis of Zero-Tolerance Weapons Policies in American Schools.” Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth 56 (4):232–40.
- Mowen, T. and J. Brent. 2016. “School Discipline as a Turning Point: The Cumulative Effect of Suspension on Arrest.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 53 (5):628–53.
- Na, C. and D. C. Gottfredson. 2013. “Police Officers in Schools: Effects on School Crime and the Processing of Offending Behaviors.” Justice Quarterly 30 (4):619–50.
- Noltemeyer, A. and C. S. Mcloughlin. 2010. “Patterns of Exclusionary Discipline by School Typology, Ethnicity, and Their Interaction.” Penn GSE Perspectives on Urban Education 7 (1):27–40.
- Novak, A. 2018. “The Association between Experiences of Exclusionary Discipline and Justice System Contact: A Systematic Review.” Aggression and Violent Behavior 40:73–82.
- Novak, A. 2019. “The School-to-Prison Pipeline: An Examination of the Association between Suspension and Justice System Involvement.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 46 (8):1165–80.
- Pesta, R. 2018. “Labeling and the Differential Impact of School Discipline on Negative Life Outcomes: Assessing Ethno-racial Variation in the School-to-prison Pipeline.” Crime and Delinquency 64 (11):1489–512.
- Skiba, R. and M. K. Rausch. 2006. School Disciplinary Systems: Alternatives to Suspension and Expulsion. Pp. 87–102, in Childrens’ needs III: Development, prevention, and intervention, edited by G. G. Bear & K. M. Minke. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
- Skiba, R. J., C. G. Chung, M. Trachok, T. L. Baker, A. Sheya, and R. L. Hughes. 2014. “Parsing Disciplinary Disproportionality: Contributions of Infraction, Student, and School Characteristics to Out-of-school Suspension and Expulsion.” American Educational Research Journal 51 (4):640–70.
- Skiba, R. J. and N. T. Williams. 2014. “Are Black Kids Worse? Myths and Facts about Racial Differences in Behavior.” Discipline Disparities: A Research-to-Practice Collaborative. The Equity Project at Indiana University, Center for Evaluation and Education Policy, Bloomington, IN.
- Sorensen, L., Y. Shen, and S. D. Bushway. 2020. “Making Schools Safer And/or Escalating Disciplinary Response: A Study of Police Officers in North Carolina Schools.” Available at SSRN 3577645.
- Sykes, B. L., A. R. Piquero, J. P. Gioviano, and N. Pittman. 2015. The School-to-prison Pipeline in America. 1972–2012. (Oxford handbooks online). doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935383.013.110
- Texans Care for Children. (2019). Keeping Kids in Class II: Analysis of Suspensions in Pre-k through 2nd Grade in Texas Schools in 2017-18. Accessed on October 7, 2020: https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5728d34462cd94b84dc567ed/t/5d66db90cffcc60001618eec/1567021974145/Suspensions-Report-2019.pdf
- Todić, J., M. Armour, and C. Cubbin. 2019. “Restorative Justice in K-12 Schools as a Structural Health Equity Intervention.” Pp. 269–290, in The Routledge International Handbook of Delinquency and Health, edited by M. Vaughn, C. Salas-Wright, and D. Jackson. London and New York: Routledge.
- Todić, J., C. Cubbin, M. Armour, M. Rountree, and T. González. 2020. “Reframing School-based Restorative Justice as a Structural Population Health Intervention.” Health & Place. Pp. 102289.
- Travis, J., B. Western, and F. S. Redburn. 2014. The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences. National Academies Press: Washington, DC.
- Turney, K. 2020. “Depressive Symptoms among Adolescents Exposed to Personal and Vicarious Police Contact.” Society and Mental Health. Pp. 2156869320923095.
- van Ginkel, J. R., M. Linting, R. C. Rippe, and A. van der Voort. 2020. “Rebutting Existing Misconceptions about Multiple Imputation as a Method for Handling Missing Data.” Journal of Personality Assessment 102 (3):297–308.
- Walters, G. D. (2014). Pathways to early delinquency: Exploring the individual and collective contributions of difficult temperament, low maternal involvement, and externalizing behavior. Journal of Criminal Justice, 42(4): 321–326.
- Weisburd, D. and M. K. Majmundar. 2018. Proactive Policing: Effects on Crime and Communities. Committee on Proactive Policing: Effects on Crime, Communities, and Civil Liberties. National Academies Press: Washington, DC.
- Welsh, B. C. and D. P. Farrington. 2015. “Monetary Value of Early Developmental Crime Prevention and Its Policy Significance.” Criminology & Public Policy 14:673.
- Wolf, K. C. and A. Kupchik. 2017. “School Suspensions and Adverse Experiences in Adulthood.” Justice Quarterly 34 (3):407–30.