What Money Can Do: Examining the Effects of Rewards on Online Romance Fraudsters’ Deceptive Strategies

References

• Bachman, R., R. Paternoster, and S. Ward. 1992. “The Rationality of Sexual Offending: Testing a Deterrence/Rational Choice Conception of Sexual Assault.” Law & Society Review 26 (2):343–72. doi:10.2307/3053901.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baumer, E. P. and R. Gustafson. 2007. “Social Organization and Instrumental Crime: Assessing the Empirical Validity of Classic and Contemporary Anomie Theories.” Criminology 45 (3):617–63. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00090.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beauregard, E. and B. Leclerc. 2007. “An Application of the Rational Choice Approach to the Offending Process of Sex Offenders: A Closer Look at the Decision-Making.” Sexual Abuse 19 (2):115–33. doi:10.1177/107906320701900204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beauregard, E., D. K. Rossmo, and J. Proulx. 2007. “A Descriptive Model of the Hunting Process of Serial Sex Offenders: A Rational Choice Perspective.” Journal of Family Violence 22 (6):449–63. doi:10.1007/s10896-007-9101-3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buchanan, T. and M. T. Whitty. 2014. “The Online Dating Romance Scam: Causes and Consequences of Victimhood.” Psychology, Crime & Law 20 (3):261–83. doi:10.1080/1068316X.2013.772180.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Budd, C. and J. Anderson 2011. Consumer Fraud in Australasia: Results of the Australasian Consumer Fraud Taskforce Online Australia Surveys 2008 and 2009. Australian Institute of Criminology.
   Google Scholar
• Buller, D. B. and J. K. Burgoon. 1996. “Interpersonal Deception Theory.” Communication Theory 6 (3):203–42. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.1996.tb00127.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buller, D. B., F. Hunsaker, and J. Aitken. 1995. “Interpersonal Deception: XIII. Suspicion and the Truth-Bias of Conversational Participants.” Intrapersonal Communication Processes Reader 36 (6):237–57.
   Google Scholar
• Buse, U.(2005). ”Africa’s City of Cyber Gangsters”. Der Spiegel. Retrieved November 11.
   Google Scholar
• Carlson, J. R., J. F. George, J. K. Burgoon, M. Adkins, and C. H. White. 2004. “Deception in Computer-Mediated Communication.” Group Decision and Negotiation 13 (1):5–28. doi:10.1023/B:GRUP.0000011942.31158.d8.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cialdini, R. 1984. Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion. New York, NY: William Morrow.
   Google Scholar
• Clarke, R. V. and D. B. Cornish. 1985. “Modeling offenders’ Decisions: A Framework for Research and Policy.” Crime and Justice 6:147–86. doi:10.1086/449106.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Copes, H. and R. Tewksbury. 2011. “Criminal Experience and Perceptions of Risk: What Auto Thieves Fear When Stealing Cars.” Journal of Crime and Justice 34 (1):62–79. doi:10.1080/0735648X.2011.554747.
   Google Scholar
• Cornish, D. B. and R. V. Clarke. 2014. The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on Offending. London: Transaction Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• Cressey, D. 1953. Other People’s Money: A Study in the Social Psychology of Embezzlement. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Cross, C. 2016. “I’m Anonymous, I’m a Voice at the End of the phone’: A Canadian Case Study into the Benefits of Providing Telephone Support to Fraud Victims.” Crime Prevention and Community Safety 18 (3):228–43. doi:10.1057/cpcs.2016.10.
   Google Scholar
• Cross, C., M. Dragiewicz, and K. Richards. 2018. “Understanding Romance Fraud: Insights from Domestic Violence Research.” The British Journal of Criminology 58 (6):1303–22. doi:10.1093/bjc/azy005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cross, C., R. G. Smith, and K. Richards. 2014. “Challenges of Responding to Online Fraud Victimisation in Australia.” Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice 474:1–6.
   Google Scholar
• Drake, D. 1957. “On Pet Names.” American Imago 14 (1):41–43. doi:10.1016/0002-9394(57)91475-7.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edwards, M., G. N. S. de Tangil Rotaeche, C. Peersman, G. Stringhini, A. Rashid, and M. Whitty (2018, May). The Geography of Online Dating Fraud. In Workshop on technology and consumer protection (ConPro).
   Google Scholar
• Ezebube, C. C., O. U. Chukwuneke, and E. J. Onuagha. 2020. “Sociolinguistic Study of Pet Names Among Couples in Nsukka Metropolis, Nigeria.” Journal of Language Teaching and Research 11 (5):749–55. doi:10.17507/jltr.1105.09.
   Google Scholar
• Federal Trade Commission (FTC) (2021). New Data Shows FTC Received 2.2 Million Fraud Reports from Consumers in 2020. Retrieved December 21, from https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2021/02/new-data-shows-ftc-received-2-2-million-fraud-reports-consumers.
   Google Scholar
• Galdo, M. C., M. E. Tait, and L. E. Feldman. 2018. “Money Mules: Stopping Older Adults and Others from Participating in International Crime Schemes.” Department of Justice Journal of Federal Law and Practice 66 (7):95–112.
   Google Scholar
• Gibbs, J. P. 1975. Crime, Punishment, and Deterrence. New York: Elsevier.
   Google Scholar
• Giordano, G. A., J. S. Stoner, R. L. Brouer, and J. F. George. 2007. “The Influences of Deception and Computer-Mediation on Dyadic Negotiations.” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 12 (2):362–83. doi:10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00329.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goffman, E. 1959. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York, NY: Anchor Books.
   Google Scholar
• Goldstein, P. J. 1985. “The Drugs/Violence Nexus: A Tripartite Conceptual Framework.” Journal of Drug Issues 15 (4):493–506. doi:10.1177/002204268501500406.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hancock, J. T., L. E. Curry, S. Goorha, and M. Woodworth. 2007. “On Lying and Being Lied To: A Linguistic Analysis of Deception in Computer-Mediated Communication.” Discourse Processes 45 (1):1–23. doi:10.1080/01638530701739181.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs, B. A. 1996. “Crack dealers’ Apprehension Avoidance Techniques: A Case of Restrictive Deterrence.” Justice Quarterly 13 (3):359–81. doi:10.1080/07418829600093011.
   Google Scholar
• Jacobs, B. A. 2010. “Deterrence and Deterrability.” Criminology 48 (2):417–41. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2010.00191.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs, B. A. and M. Cherbonneau. 2014. “Auto Theft and Restrictive Deterrence.” Justice Quarterly 31 (2):344–67. doi:10.1080/07418825.2012.660977.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs, B. A. and M. Cherbonneau. 2018. “Perceived Sanction Threats and Projective Risk Sensitivity: Auto Theft, Carjacking, and the Channeling Effect.” Justice Quarterly 35 (2):191–222. doi:10.1080/07418825.2017.1301536.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacques, S., A. Allen, and R. Wright. 2014. “Drug dealers’ Rational Choices on Which Customers to Rip-Off.” International Journal of Drug Policy 25 (2):251–56. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.11.010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, B. D. and M. Natarajan. 1995. “Strategies to Avoid Arrest: Crack sellers’ Response to Intensified Policing.” Crime Prevention Studies 11:273–98.
   Google Scholar
• Kahneman, D. and A. Tversky. [1979] 2013. “Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decisions Under Risk.” Econometrica 47 (2):263–92. doi:10.2307/1914185.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalbfleisch, P. J. 1992. “Deceit, Distrust and the Social Milieu: Application of Deception Research in a Troubled World.” Journal of Applied Communication Research 20 (3):308–34. doi:10.1080/00909889209365338.
   Google Scholar
• Kemper, T. D. and R. Collins. 1990. “Dimensions of Microinteraction.” American Journal of Sociology 96 (1):32–68. doi:10.1086/229492.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kopp, C., R. Layton, J. Sillitoe, and I. Gondal. 2015. “The Role of Love Stories in Romance Scams: A Qualitative Analysis of Fraudulent Profiles.” International Journal of Cyber Criminology 9 (2):205–17.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kopp, C., J. Sillitoe, I. Gondal, and R. Layton. 2016. “The Online Romance Scam: A Complex Two-Layer Scam.” Journal of Psychological and Educational Research 24 (2):144–61.
   Google Scholar
• Lea, S., P. Fischer, and K. Evans. 2009. “‘The Psychology of Scams: Provoking and Committing Errors of Judgement’, Report for the Office of Fair Trading.” available online at (www.oft.gov.uk/shared_oft/reports/consumer_protection/oft1070.pdf).
   Google Scholar
• Loewenstein, G. 1996. “Out of Control: Visceral Influences on Behavior.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 65 (3):272–92. doi:10.1006/obhd.1996.0028.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Loughran, T. A., R. Paternoster, A. Chalfin, and T. Wilson. 2016. “Can Rational Choice Be Considered a General Theory of Crime? Evidence from Individual‐level Panel Data.” Criminology 54 (1):86–112. doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12097.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maimon, D., C. J. Howell, M. Moloney, and Y. S. Park. 2020. “An Examination of Email fraudsters’ Modus Operandi.” Crime & Delinquency 1–30. doi:10.1177/0011128720968504.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maimon, D., M. Santos, and Y. Park. 2019. “Online Deception and Situations Conducive to the Progression of Non-Payment Fraud.” Journal of Crime and Justice 42 (5):516–35. doi:10.1080/0735648X.2019.1691857.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matsueda, R. L., D. A. Kreager, and D. Huizinga. 2006. “Deterring Delinquents: A Rational Choice Model of Theft and Violence.” American Sociological Review 71 (1):95–122. doi:10.1177/000312240607100105.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCarthy, B. 2002. “New Economics of Sociological Criminology.” Annual Review of Sociology 28 (1):417–42. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.28.110601.140752.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McGloin, J. M. and K. J. Thomas. 2016. “Incentives for Collective Deviance: Group Size and Changes in Perceived Risk, Cost, and Reward.” Criminology 54 (3):459–86. doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12111.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nagin, D. S. 1998. “Deterrence and Incapacitation.” Pp. 345–68 in The Handbook of Crime and Punishment, edited by M. H. Tonry. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Nagin, D. S. and R. Paternoster. 1993. “Enduring Individual Differences and Rational Choice Theories of Crime.” Law & Society Review 27 (3):467–96. doi:10.2307/3054102.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pan, J., D. Winshester, L. Land, and P. Watters. 2010. “Descriptive Data Mining on Fraudulent Online Dating Profiles.” Paper Presented at the 18th European conference on information system, available online at (https://researchers.mq.edu.au/en/publications/descriptive-data-mining-on-fraudulent-online-dating-profiles).
   Google Scholar
• Paternoster, R. 1987. “The Deterrent Effect of the Perceived Certainty and Severity of Punishment: A Review of the Evidence and Issues.” Justice Quarterly 4 (2):173–217. doi:10.1080/07418828700089271.
   Google Scholar
• Paternoster, R. and G. Pogarsky. 2009. “Rational Choice, Agency and Thoughtfully Reflective Decision Making: The Short and Long-Term Consequences of Making Good Choices.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 25 (2):103–27. doi:10.1007/s10940-009-9065-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pezzin, L. E. 1995. “Earnings Prospects, Matching Effects, and the Decision to Terminate a Criminal Career.” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 11 (1):29–50. doi:10.1007/BF02221299.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Piliavin, I., R. Gartner, C. Thornton, and R. L. Matsueda. 1986. “Crime, Deterrence, and Rational Choice.” American Sociological Review 15 (1):101–19. doi:10.2307/2095480.
   Google Scholar
• Piquero, A. and S. Tibbetts. 1996. “Specifying the Direct and Indirect Effects of Low Self-Control and Situational Factors in offenders’ Decision Making: Toward a More Complete Model of Rational Offending.” Justice Quarterly 13 (3):481–510. doi:10.1080/07418829600093061.
   Google Scholar
• Pogarsky, G., S. P. Roche, and J. T. Pickett. 2018. “Offender Decision-Making in Criminology: Contributions from Behavioral Economics.” Annual Review of Criminology 1 (1):379–400. doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-032317-092036.
   Google Scholar
• Rabin, M. 2000. “Risk Aversion and Expected-Utility Theory: A Calibration Theorem.” Econometrica 65 (5):1281–92.
   Google Scholar
• Rege, A. 2009. “What’s Love Got to Do with It? Exploring Online Dating Scams and Identity Fraud.” International Journal of Cyber Criminology 3 (2):494–512.
   Google Scholar
• Scherer, K. R. 1984. “On the Nature and Function of Emotion: A Component Process Approach.” Approaches to Emotion 2293 (317):31.
   Google Scholar
• Sorell, T. and M. Whitty. 2019. “Online Romance Scams and Victimhood.” Security Journal 32 (3):342–61. doi:10.1057/s41284-019-00166-w.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Suarez-Tangil, G., M. Edwards, C. Peersman, G. Stringhini, A. Rashid, and M. T. Whitty. 2019. “Automatically Dismantling Online Dating Fraud.” IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security 15:1128–37. doi:10.1109/TIFS.2019.2930479.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomas, K. J., T. A. Loughran, and B. C. Hamilton. 2020. “Perceived Arrest Risk, Psychic Rewards, and Offense Specialization: A Partial Test of Rational Choice Theory.” Criminology 58 (3):485–509. doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12243.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tversky, A. and D. Kahneman. 1992. “Advances in Prospect Theory: Cumulative Representation of Uncertainty.” Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 5 (4):297–323. doi:10.1007/BF00122574.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Dijk, J. J. V. 1994. “Understanding Crime Rates: On the Interactions Between the Rational Choices of Victims and Offenders.” The British Journal of Criminology 34 (2):105–21. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjc.a048398.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vitola, M. N. 2018. The Geese That Lay the Golden Eggs: Romance Scams That Break Hearts and Plunder Wallets. Montefranco, Province of Terni, Italy: Tektime.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, F., C. J. Howell, D. Maimon, and S. Jacques. 2021. “The Restrictive Deterrent Effect of Warning Messages Sent to Active Romance Fraudsters: An Experimental Approach.” International Journal of Cyber Criminology 15 (1):1–16.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, F. and X. Zhou 2022. “Persuasive Schemes for Financial Exploitation in Online Romance Scam: An Anatomy on Sha Zhu Pan (杀猪盘) in China.” Victims & Offenders 1–28.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinstein, E. A. and P. Deutschberger. 1963. “Some Dimensions of Altercasting.” Sociometry 26 (4):454–66. doi:10.2307/2786148.
   Google Scholar
• White, C. H. and J. K. Burgoon. 2001. “Adaptation and Communicative Design. Patterns of Interaction in Truthful and Deceptive Conversations.” Human Communication Research 27 (1):9–37. doi:10.1093/hcr/27.1.9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitty, M. T. 2013. “The Scammers Persuasive Techniques Model: Development of a Stage Model to Explain the Online Dating Romance Scam.” British Journal of Criminology 53 (4):665–84. doi:10.1093/bjc/azt009.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitty, M. T. 2015. “Anatomy of the Online Dating Romance Scam.” Security Journal 28 (4):443–55. doi:10.1057/sj.2012.57.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitty, M. T. 2018. “Do You Love Me? Psychological Characteristics of Romance Scam Victims.” Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking 21 (2):105–09.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitty, M. T. and T. Buchanan. 2012. “The Online Romance Scam: A Serious Cybercrime.” Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking 15 (3):181–83. doi:10.1089/cyber.2011.0352.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitty, M. T. and T. Buchanan. 2016. “The Online Dating Romance Scam: The Psychological Impact on Victims–Both Financial and Non-Financial.” Criminology & Criminal Justice 16 (2):176–94. doi:10.1177/1748895815603773.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wright, R. T. and S. H. Decker. 1997. Armed Robbers in Action: Stickups and Street Culture. Boston, Massachusetts: Northeastern University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Yen, T. F. and M. Jakobsson 2016. “Case Study: Romance Scams.” Understanding Social Engineering Based Scams 103–13.
   Google Scholar