References
- Polman CH, Reingold SC, Banwell B, et al. Diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: 2010 revisions to the McDonald criteria. Ann Neurol. 2011;69:292–302.
- Gelfand JM. Chapter 12 Multiple Sclerosis: Diagnosis, Differential Diagnosis, and Clinical Presentation. London: Elsevier; 2014 4.
- Green AJ, McQuaid S, Hauser SL, et al. Ocular pathology in multiple sclerosis: retinal atrophy and inflammation irrespective of disease duration. Brain. 2010;133:1591–1601. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awq080.
- Toussaint D, Perier O, Verstappen A, Bervoets S. Clinicopathological study of the visual pathways, eyes, and cerebral hemispheres in 32 cases of disseminated sclerosis. J Clin Neuroophthalmol. 1983;3:211–220.
- Said Ha S, Al-Louzi O, Ratchford JN, et al. Optical coherence tomography reflects brain atrophy in multiple sclerosis: a four-year study. Ann Neurol. 2015;78:801–813. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.24487.
- Abalo-Lojo JM, Limeres CC, Gomez MA, et al. Retinal nerve fiber layer thickness, brain atrophy, and disability in multiple sclerosis patients. J Neuroophthalmol. 2014;34:23–28. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/WNO.0000000000000057.
- Garcia-Martin E, Ara JR, Martin J, et al. Retinal and optic nerve degeneration in patients with multiple sclerosis followed up for 5 years. Ophthalmology. 2017;124:688–696. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2017.01.005.
- Ratchford JN, Saidha S, Sotirchos ES, et al. Active MS is associated with accelerated retinal ganglion cell/inner plexiform layer thinning. Neurology. 2013;80:47–54. doi:https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e31827b1a1c.
- Martinez-Lapiscina EH, Arnow S, Wilson JA, et al. Retinal thickness measured with optical coherence tomography and risk of disability worsening in multiple sclerosis: a cohort study. Lancet Neurol. 2016;15:574–584. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(16)00068-5.
- Steen C, D’haeseleer M, Hoogduin JM, et al. Cerebral white matter blood flow and energy metabolism in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2013;19:1282–1289. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458513477228.
- Law M, Saindane AM, Ge Y, et al. Microvascular abnormality in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: perfusion MR imaging findings in normal-appearing white matter. Radiology. 2004;231:645–652. doi:https://doi.org/10.1148/radiol.2313030996.
- Adhya S, Johnson G, Herbert J, et al. Pattern of hemodynamic impairment in multiple sclerosis: dynamic susceptibility contrast perfusion MR imaging at 3.0 T. Neuroimage. 2006;33(4):1029–1035. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.08.008.
- Saindane AM, Law M, Ge Y, et al. Correlation of diffusion tensor and dynamic perfusion MR imaging metrics in normal-appearing corpus callosum: support for primary hypoperfusion in multiple sclerosis. AJNR. 2007;28(4):767–772.
- Varga AW, Johnson G, Babb JS, et al. White matter hemodynamic abnormalities precede sub-cortical gray matter changes in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol Sci. 2009;282(1–2):28–33. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2008.12.036.
- Marrie RA, Rudick R, Horwitz R, et al. Vascular comorbidity is associated with more rapid disability progression in multiple sclerosis. Neurology. 2010;74:1041–1047. doi:https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181d6b125.
- Jiang H, Delgado S, Tan J, et al. Impaired retinal microcirculation in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2016;22(14):1812‐1820. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458516631035.
- Modrzejewska M, Karczewicz D, Wilk G. Assessment of blood flow velocity in eyeball arteries in multiple sclerosis patients with past retrobulbar optic neuritis in color Doppler ultrasonography. Klin Oczna. 2007;109:183–186.
- Feucht N, Maier M, Lepennetier G, et al. Optical coherence tomography angiography indicates associations of the retinal vascular network and disease activity in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2018;25:224–234. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458517750009.
- Lanzillo R, Cennamo G, Criscuolo C, et al. Optical coherence tomography angiography retinal vascular network assessment in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler. 2018;24:1706–1714. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1352458517729463.
- Spain RI, Liu L, Zhang X, et al. Optical coherence tomography angiography enhances the detection of optic nerve damage in multiple sclerosis. Br J Ophthalmol. 2018;102(4):520–524. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bjophthalmol-2017-310477.
- Wang X, Jia Y, Spain R, et al. Optical coherence tomography angiography of optic nerve head and parafovea in multiple sclerosis. Br J Ophthalmol. 2014;98:1368–1373. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bjophthalmol-2013-304547.
- Murphy OC, Kwakyi O, Iftikhar M, et al. Alterations in the retinal vasculature occur in multiple sclerosis and exhibit novel correlations with disability and visual function measures. Mult Scler. May 2019;16:1352458519845116.
- Fairless R, Williams SK, Hoffmann DB, et al. Preclinical retinal neurodegeneration in a model of multiple sclerosis. J Neurosci. 2012;32:5585–5597. doi:https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5705-11.2012.
- Hein K, Gadjanski I, Kretzschmar B, et al. An optical coherence tomography study on degeneration of retinal nerve fiber layer in rats with autoimmune optic neuritis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2012;53:157–163. doi:https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.11-8092.
- Saidha S, Sotirchos ES, Oh J, et al. Relationships between retinal axonal and neuronal measures and global central nervous system pathology in multiple sclerosis. JAMA Neurol. 2013;70(1):34‐43. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.573.
- Saidha S, Eckstein C, Ratchford JN. Optical coherence tomography as a marker of axonal damage in multiple sclerosis. CML - Multiple Sclerosis. 2010;2(2):33–43.
- Siger M, Dziegielewski K, Jasek L, et al. Optical coherence tomography in multiple sclerosis: thickness of the retinal nerve fiber layer as a potential measure of axonal loss and brain atrophy. J Neurol. 2008;255(10):1555–1560. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-008-0985-5.
- Frohman EM, Fujimoto JG, Frohman TC, Calabresi PA, Cutter G, Balcer LJ. Optical coherence tomography: a window into the mechanisms of multiple sclerosis. Nat Clin Pract Neurol. 2008;4:664–675. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/ncpneuro0950.
- Costello F. Optical coherence tomography in neuro-ophthalmology. Neurol Clin. 2017;35:153–163. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ncl.2016.08.012.
- Costello F, Coupland S, Hodge W, et al. Quantifying axonal loss after optic neuritis with optical coherence tomography. Ann Neurol. 2006;59:963–969. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.20851.
- Knier B, Leppenetier G, Wetzlmair C, et al. Association of retinal architecture, intrathecal immunity, and clinical disease course in multiple sclerosis. JAMA Neurol. 2017;74:847–856. doi:https://doi.org/10.1001/jamaneurol.2017.0377.
- Kutzelnigg A, Lucchinetti CF, Stadelmann C, et al. Cortical demyelination and diffuse white matter injury in multiple sclerosis. Brain. 2005;128:2705–2712. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awh641.
- Manogaran P, Samardzija M, Schad AN, et al. Retinal pathology in experimental optic neuritis is characterized by retrograde degeneration and gliosis [published correction appears in Acta Neuropathol Commun. 2019 Oct 18;7(1):157]. Acta Neuropathol Commun. 2019;7(1):116. Published 2019 Jul 17. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s40478-019-0768-5.
- Meyer R, Weissert R, Diem R, et al. Acute neuronal apoptosis in a rat model of multiple sclerosis. J Neurosci. 2001;21:6214–6220. doi:https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-16-06214.2001.
- Kawachi I. Clinical characteristics of autoimmune optic neuritis. Clin Exp Neuroimmunol. 2017;8:8–16. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/cen3.12354.
- Minagar A, Jy W, Jimenez JJ, Alexander JS. Multiple sclerosis as a vascular disease. Neurol Res. 2006;28:230–235. doi:https://doi.org/10.1179/016164106X98080.
- Plumb J, McQuaid S, Mirakhur M, Kirk J. Abnormal endothelial tight junctions in active lesions and normal-appearing white matter in multiple sclerosis. Brain Pathol. 2002;12:154–169. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-3639.2002.tb00430.x.
- Holland CM, Charil A, Csapo I, et al. The relationship between normal cerebral perfusion patterns and white matter lesion distribution in 1,249 patients with multiple sclerosis. J Neuroimaging. 2012;22:129–36. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1552-6569.2011.00585.x.
- Sepulcre J, Murie-Fernandez M, Salinas-Alaman A, GarciaLayana A, Bejarano B, Villoslada P. Diagnostic accuracy of retinal abnormalities in predicting disease activity in MS. Neurology. 2007;68:1488–1494. doi:https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000260612.51849.ed.
- Gao SS, Jia Y, Zhang M, et al. Optical coherence tomography angiography. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2016;57:27–36. doi:https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.15-19043.
- Yilmaz H, Ersoy A, Icel E. Assessments of vessel density and foveal avascular zone metrics in multiple sclerosis: an optical coherence tomography angiography study. Eye (Lond). 2020;34(4):771–778. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/s41433-019-0746-y.
- Buffolino NJ, Vu AF, Amin A, De Niear M, Park SS. Factors affecting repeatability of foveal avascular zone measurement using optical coherence tomography angiography in pathologic eyes. Clin Ophthalmol. 2020;14:1025‐1033. doi:https://doi.org/10.2147/OPTH.S247172.
- Adhi M, Filho MAB, Louzada RN. et al. Retinal capillary network and foveal avascular zone in eyes with vein occlusion and fellow eyes analyzed with optical coherence tomography angiographyretinal capillary network and FAZ in RVO with OCTA. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2016;;57:OCT486–OCT494. doi:https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.15-18907.
- Al-Sheikh M, Akil H, Pfau M, Sadda SR. Swept-source OCT angiography imaging of the foveal avascular zone and macular capillary network density in diabetic retinopathyOCT-angiography in diabetic retinopathy. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2016;57:3907–3913. doi:https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.16-19570.
- Balaratnasingam C, Inoue M, Ahn S. et al. Visual acuity is correlated with the area of the foveal avascular zone in diabetic retinopathy and retinal vein occlusion. Ophthalmology. 2016;123:2352–2367. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ophtha.2016.07.008.
- Lu Y, Simonett JM, Wang J, et al. Evaluation of automatically quantified foveal avascular zone metrics for diagnosis of diabetic retinopathy using optical coherence tomography angiography. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2018;59(6):2212‐2221. doi:https://doi.org/10.1167/iovs.17-23498.
- Tang FY, Ng DS, Lam A, et al. Determinants of quantitative optical coherence tomography angiography metrics in patients with diabetes. Sci Rep. 2017;7:1–10.
- Di G, Weihong Y, Xiao Z. et al. A morphological study of the foveal avascular zone in patients with diabetes mellitus using optical coherence tomography angiography. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2016;254:873–879. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00417-015-3143-7.
- Gjedde A, Diemer NH. Double-tracer study of the fine regional blood-brain glucose transfer in the rat by computer-assisted autoradiography. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 1985;5:282–289. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.1985.36.
- Klein B, Kuschinsky W, Schröck H, Vetterlein F. Interdependency of local capillary density, blood flow, and metabolism in rat brains. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 1986;251:H1333–H1340. doi:https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.1986.251.6.H1333.
- Rassam SM, Patel V, Chen HC, Kohner EM. Regional retinal blood flow and vascular autoregulation. Eye (Lond). 1996;10:331–337. doi:https://doi.org/10.1038/eye.1996.69.
- Saidha S, Sotirchos ES, Ibrahim MA, et al. Microcystic macular oedema, thickness of the inner nuclear layer of the retina, and disease characteristics in multiple sclerosis: a retrospective study. Lancet Neurol. 2012;11:963–972. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70213-2.