Civic Knowledge, Civic Education, and Civic Engagement: A Summary of Recent Research

REFERENCES

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• 2. For the historical record, see Ladd, E. C.; Bowman, K. H. What's Wrong: A Survey of American Satisfaction and Complaint; The AEI Press: Washington, D.C., 1998, p. 15.
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• 22. For all this and much more, see especially Delli Carpini, M. X. D.; Keeter, S. What Americans Know about Politics and Why It Matters; Yale University Press: New Haven, CT, 1996.
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• 23. Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 36.
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• 24. For a discussion of these difficulties, see Youth Voter Turnout Has Declined, by Any Measure; Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement (CIRCLE), University of Maryland, 2002.
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• 26. Youth Voter Turnout Has Declined, by Any Measure, p. 9.
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• 27. Youth Voter Turnout Has Declined, by Any Measure, at 10.
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• 28. Calculations by Mark Lopez, CIRCLE Research Director; copy on file with the author.
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• 29. This survey is summarized in Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 45.
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• 31. Who Bowls?, Figure 10–2.
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• 32. Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 253.
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• 34. Putnam, Bowling Alone, pp. 54, 60–61, 71, 81, 155–161.
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• 35. Who Bowls?, Figures 10–3 and 10–4.
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• 36. Who Bowls?, Figure 10–5.
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• 37. Who Bowls? (end).
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• 38. This trend is summarized in Putnam, Bowling Alone, p. 124. Figure 31 on that page also shows that the mid-1960s peak represents a remarkable increase from the roughly 1.5 percent characteristic of the 1930s. This raises the question whether the Depression/World War II generation should be regarded as an aspirational norm or rather an unusual exception to typical social patterns.
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• 39. Putnam, Bowling Alone, pp. 128–130; and Youth Civic Engagement, p. 4.
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• 41. Putnam, Bowling Alone, pp. 154–166. As Putnam rightly observes, the movement of religious conservatives constitutes a major exception to this generalization, a fact that helps explain important developments in American politics over the past quarter century.
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• 42. In addition to the sources I specifically mention in this section and the next, I have drawn on the following sources: Carpini and Keeter, 1996; Leming, R. S. We the People… The Citizen and the Constitution. Eric Digest 1996, EDO-SO-96-4. Nie, N.; Junn, J.; Stehlik-Barry, K. Education and Democratic Citizenship in America; The University of Chicago Press: Chicago, 1996; Nie, N.; Hillygus, D. Education and Democratic Citizenship. In Making Good Citizens: Education and Civil Society; Ravitch, D.; Viteritti, J., Eds.; Yale University Press: New Haven, CT, 2001; Torney-Purta, J. The School's Role in Developing Civic Engagement: A Study of Adolescents in Twenty-Eight Countries. Applied Development Science 2002, 6(4), 203–212; Zaller, J. The Nature and Origins of Mass Opinion; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1992.
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