References
- Darmstadter , J. 1971 . Energyin the World's Economy , Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press . B. Netschert, Fuels for; the Electric Utility Industry, 1971-1985 (Washington: National Economic Research Associates. 1972): R.L. Goen . .and R. K. White, Comparison of Energy Consumption Between West Germany and the United States (Menlo Park, CA: Stanford Research Institute. 1975): L. Schipper and .A. J. Lichtenberg, "Efficient Energy Use and Well-Being: The Swedish Example," Science 1974 (December 3, 1976): 1101-1106: and J. Darmstadter et al.. How Industrial Societies Use Energy: A Comparative Analysis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977)
- Meadows , D.H. 1972 . The Limits to Growth , New York : Universe . The classic presentation of the energy-economic development dependency argument appears it should be noted, however, that other scholars contend that while economic development may be related statistically to energy consumption, the mere consumption of energy (total end use demand) does not necessarily cause levels of economic development. See D.G. Scroggin, Energy Conservation in the U.S., Yale Scientific 51 (April 1977): 9-13
- Schipper and Lichtenberg . 1972 . op cit , p. 1012
- U.S. General Accounting Office . 1978 . U.S. Energy Conservation Could Benefit From Experience of Other Countries , Washington : General Accounting Office .
- Adelman , M.A. 1975 . No Time to Confuse , San Francisco : Institute for Contemporary Studies . A. Carnesale et al., Options for U.S. Energy Policy (San Francisco:Institute for Contemporary Studies, 1977)
- Craig , P.P. 1976 . “ Social and Institutional Factors in Energy Conservation ” . In Annual Review of Energy , Edited by: Hollander , J.M . Vol. 1 , Palo Alto, CA : Annual Review . M. Boretsky, "Opportunities and Strategies for Energy Conservation," Technology Review 35 (July/August 1975): 322-327
- Canfield , M. and Sieminski , A.E. 1975 . "If You're So Smart, Why Ain't You Rich? An Analysis of Impediments to Implementing Energy Conservation in the United States," . Public Administration Review , 35 July/August : 322 – 327 .
- Federal Energy Administration . 1974 . Project Independence , Washington : Federal Energy Administration . Executive Office of the President, The National Energy Plan (Washington: Governmental Printing Office, 1977). - To a lesser extent, the U.S. government has also under-taken a limited number of mandatory actions exemplified by regulations establishing fuel economy standards for new cars, the 55-mph speed limit, and thermal efficiency requirements for new buildings and appliances. See T.A. Hall, “Energy Conservation Policy in the U.S. :The Emerging Role of the Federal Government,” in R.A. Fazzolare and C.B. Smith, eds, Energy Use Management (New York: Pergamon, 1978)
- Meinel , A.B. and Meinel , M.P. 1979 . “ Energy, You and the Future ” . In Nuclear Energy Alternatives , Cambridge, MA : Ballinger . Disagreeing with the widely held assumption that Sweden exhibits a higher per capita GNP with lower energy consumption than does the U.S., a recent study maintains that it takes almost as much energy to generate each $1000 increment in GNP of Sweden as it does in the United States
- Schipper , L. 1978 . “ The Swedish-U.S. Energy Use Comparison and Beyond: Summary ” . In International Comparisons of Energy Consumption , Edited by: Dunkerley , J . Washington : Resources for the Future .
- Ibid. 47
- Landsberg , H.H . 1974 . Energy and the Social Sciences :An Examination of Research Needs , Washington : Resources for the Future .
- Kash , D.E . 1976 . Our Energy Future : The Role of Research, Development and Demonstration in Reaching a National Consensus on Energy Supply , Norman : University of Oklahoma Press .
- Lonnroth , M. 1977 . “ Swedish Energy Policy : Technology in the Political Process ” . In The Energy Syndrome , Edited by: Lindberg , L.N. Lexington, MA : D.C. Health . G. Hambraeus and S. Stillesjo , “Perspectives on Energy in Sweden,” in J . M . Hollander etal . , e d s , Annual Review of Energy Vol. II ( Palo Alto , CA: Annual Reviews, 1977 ) ; and M . Lonnroth etal . , Energy in Transition (Uddevala, Sweden: Secretariat for Future Studies ,1977)
- Lonnroth . 1977 . op . cit , p. 13
- Centrala Drift Lendningen . 1972 . Sveriges Elkonsumtion, 1975-1990 , Stockholm, , Sweden : Centrala Drift Ledningen .
- Swedish Ministry of Industry . 1975 . Energy Planning in Sweden , 4 Stockholm, , Sweden : Swedish Ministry of Industry .
- Nelkin , D and Pollak , M . 1977 . The Politics of Participation and the Nuclear Debate in Sweden, the Netherlands , and Austria . Public Policy , 25 Summer : 333 – 357 . L.N. Lindberg , Energy Policy and the Politics of Economic Development, Comparative Political Studies 10 (October1977) ; and M. Lonnroth etal . , op.cit
- The study groups were organized under the aegis of the voluntary adult associations which have strong links to different popular movements in Sweden including the political parties.
- Initially, none of the different political parties had clear cut views about future energy policy. As debate evolved, however, the question of continued development of nuclear power became highly polarized. Several established political parties--particularly the Center Party--took positions opposing further development, but the bure aucracy and the then ruling Social Democratic Party favored continued limited development including increasing the number of nuclear plants from 11 to 13. It is interesting to note that the Social Democrats seem to have concluded that their positionon nuclear power led to their defeat in the September 1976 elections. See Lindberg, op. cit., pp. 363-364. Actually, it is difficult to establish the role nuclear power played in the out come since both parties that rejected it lost votes compared to the 1973 election. However, both out going Prime Minister Palme and the incoming Torbjorn Falldin of the Center Party declared that Falldin's strong commitments in the last two weeks on not letting reactors under construction come on-line tipped the balance.
- Helander , Lars-Inge . August 1977 . Personal communication , August , Swedish Embassy : Office of the Scientific Counselor . This interpretation is also supported by Lonnroth etal. , op . cit
- 1977 . op . cit , August : 440 On the average, Sweden's energy consumption increased 4-5 percent annually since 1945. Distribution among different sectors of swedish society has remained more or less constant. Over 40 percent is used in the industrial sector, just over 15 percent in the heating, cooling, and lighting in the residential and commercial sector. See Swedish Ministry of Industry. Energy Planning in Sweden, op. cit.; and Darmstadter etal., How Industrial Societies Use Energy, op. cit
- Swedish Ministry of Industry, Ibid .
- Davidson , A . 1977 . Energy Policy in Sweden . Current Sweden , 156 April : 1 – 5 . Schipper , op . cit . , p. 49
- 1977 . Energy Planning in Sweden . op.cit , 156 April p. 6.. Specifically, the annual conservation targets assigned to each sector were 3 percent for transportation, and -0.9 percent for the residential/commercial sector. see Schipper, Ibid., p. 49
- Lonnroth . 1977 . op. cit , 156 April : 255 – 255 .
- Schipper . 1977 . op. cit , 156 April : 49 – 49 . Hambraeus and Stillesjo op. cit . , p . 445
- Lindberg . 1977 . op. cit , 156 April Lonnroth, op. cit. In fact as the 1980 parliamentary elections also revealed ,debate over the appropriate course for future energy policy-especially the nuclear power option-remains an important issue in Swedish Politics
- Rambraeus and Stillesjo, op. cit., p. 448.
- Swedish Ministry of Industry . 1975 . Energy for Sweden , Stockholm, , Sweden : Ministry of Industry .
- Swedish Institute . 1976 . Energy Supply in Sweden , Stockholm, , Sweden : Swedish Institute .
- 1976 . Energy Planning in Sweden . op. cit ,
- 1976 . Energy Planning in Sweden . op. cit , One Swedish Krona (Skr) equals $0.24
- 1976 . op. cit , : 447 suggest that due to the September 1976 elections which resulted in substantially diminished reliance on nuclear power, it is likely that budget allocations for FY 1978 and subsequent years will be revised to provide less funding for nuclear R&D and more for alternative energy sources . Personal communication, Gunnar Leman, Swedish Energy Research and Development Commission, August 1977. See also Swedish Ministry of Industry , Energy for Sweden, op. cit
- The conservation component of the Swedish energy R&D budget is allocated in the following manner: 28.6% to industrial processes, 22.2% to transportation, 42.1% to space he ati ng, and 7.1% to waste heat.
- 1976 . Energy Planning in Sweden . op. cit , : 12 – 12 .
- Balzhiser , R.E. 1977 . R&D Stautus Report: Fossil Fuel and Advanced Systems Division . EPRI Journal , 2 December : 38 – 43 . In general the distribution of energy consumption among end us e sectors in the U.S. has remained constant over the last twenty years . Approximately 25 percent is used in the transportation sector; 35 percent for space heating, air conditioning, water heating, and lighting in the residential and commercial sector; and about 40 percent is consumed in industrial processes. See Energy Policy Project of the Ford Foundation, A Time To Choose (Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1974). Recent data indicate in response to increased energy price , industry has reduced slightly its share of total demand. In fact , unit energy requirements in industry were declining before the 1973-74 oil embargo precipitated official concern
- Landsberg , H.H. 1974 . Low-Cost Abundant Energy: Paradise Lost . Science , 184 April : 247 – 253 . 19
- For example, a 1972 report by the National Petroleum Council (p.4) stated: "No major source of U.S. fuel supply is limited by the availability of resources to sustain higher production."
- U.S. Office of Emergency Preparedness . 1972 . The Potential for Energy Conservation , Washington : Government Printing Office . Stanford Research Institute, Patterns of Energy Consumption in the United States (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1972)
- Hayes , D. 1976 . Energy: The Case for Conservation , Washington : World-Watch Institute . For an overview of the participants and the development of the case for energy conservation. in the U.S., Hall, op. cit
- Abelson , P.H. 1978 . Five Years of Energy Paralysis . Science , 201 September : 775 – 775 . 1
- Regens , J.L. 1980 . State Policy Responses of the Energy Issue: An Analysis of Innovation . Social Science Quarterly , 61 September : 44 – 57 . J.L. Regens, Energy Conservation and the States: Approaches to Implementing National Policy, Publius 10 (Winter 1980): 47-56; and T.A. Hall, Policies and Strategies for Energy Conservation: An Assessment of Direct Regulatory Actions, in R.A. Fazzolare and C.B. Smith, eds, Changing Energy Use Futures (New York: Pergamon, 1979)
- Cook , E. 1971 . The Flow of Energy in an Industrial Society . Scientific American , 224 September : 135 – 144 .
- Executive Office of the President, op. cit.
- More specifically, 1985 conservation targets identified are as follows:reduce gasoline consumption in the transportation sector 10 percent below its 1977 level; bring 90 percent ofexisting American homes and all new buildings up to minimum energy efficiency standards; and use solar energy in more than two and one-half million homes. With regard to the industrial sector, no formal targets are stated but cogeneration and district heating are encouraged, see Executive Office of the President, Ibid.
- Regnes . 1971 . Energy Conservation and the States . op. cit , 224 September Hall, "Energy Conservation in the U.S" op. cit
- Energy Research and Development Administration . 1975 . A National Plan for Energy Research, Development & Demonstration: Creating Energy Choices for The Future , Washington : Government Printing Office .
- U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment . 1975 . An Analysis of the ERDA Plan and Program , Washington : Government Printing Office . U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Comparative Analysis of the 1976 ERDA Plan and Program (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1976)
- Heller , Austin N. 1975 . ERDA's position was exemplified in a speech delivered by its Assistant Administrator for Conservation . Conference on Energy Conservation . December 2 1975 , Fort Lauderdale, Florida.
- Regens , J.L. 1979 . “ Patterns of State Compliance with Federal Energy Conservation Guidelines ” . In Changing Energy Use Futures , Edited by: Fazzolare , R.A. and Smith , C.B. New York : Pergamon . The stated goal of the EPCA and ECPA legislation is to reduce energy consumption to 5 percent below the level otherwise anticipated for 1980. For an analysis of the implementation of programs to achieve this goal
- Laughlin , Q. 1977 . “ Federal Energy Conservation Programs: A State Perspective, in U.S. House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce and U.S. Senate Committees on Energy and Natural Resources and Commerce, Science, and Transportation ” . In Project Independence: U.S. and World Energy Outlook Trough , Washington : Government Printing Office .
- Hall . 1977 . Energy Conservation in the U.S . op. cit ,
- Lambright , W.H. 1976 . Governing Science and Technology , 163 – 181 . New York : Oxford University Press . The classic agreements for and against such a capacity for centralized control of science policy in the U.S. are presented in H. Brooks, The Government of Science (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1968), pp. 1-18
- 1976 . Comparative Analysis of the 1976 ERDA Plan and Program . op. cit , : 145 – 145 .
- Jones , J.W. 1975 . “ End Use Energy Conservation Research and Development Program, in Center for Energy Studies ” . In U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration Budget Estimates, Fiscal Year 1976 and Transition Period: A Brief Analysis , Austin : The University of Texas . Center for Energy Studies
- Shapley , W.H. 1976 . Research and Development in the Federal Budget: FY 1977 , Washington : American Association for the Advancement of Science . W. H. Shapley and D.I. Phillips, Research and Development AAAS Report III, R&D in the Federal Budget: FY 1979, R&D, Industry, & the Economy (Washington: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1978)
- Expenditures for solar energy R&D are included under the production category since they are aimed primarily at shifting to alternative supply sources instead of necessarily reducing aggregate demand. Therefore, they represent only an indirect expenditure, at best, for conservation. Moreover, since solar expenditures averaged only 8.8 percent of the total energy budgets during FY 1976 to FY 1978, including them in the conservation category would not alter substantially our findings about U.S. funding priorities.
- The fact that Sweden is more acutely import-dependent and possesses fewer energy resources for development (other than uranium deposits) than the U.S. may also potentially help account for the higher priority accorded conservation within the Swedish R&D budget.
- Anton , T.J. 1969 . Policymaking and Political Culture in Sweden . Scandinavian Political Studies , 4 : 88 – 102 . F.G. Castles, Policy Innovation and Institutional Stability in Sweden, British Journal of Political Science 6 (1976) 203-216
- Landsberg , H.H. 1979 . Energy:The Next Twenty Years , Cambridge, MA : Ballinger . R. Stobaugh and D. Yergin, eds. Energy Future: Report of the Energy Project at The Harvard Business School (New York: Random House, 1979); and S.H. Schurr etal., Energy in America's Future (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979)
- Milstein , J.S. 1978 . “ How Consumers Feel About Energy: Attitudes and Behavior during the Winter and Spring 1976-77 ” . In Energy Policy in the United States: Social and Behavioral Dimensions , Edited by: Warkov , S. New York : Praeger .