HOST DEFENSES AGAINST RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION—IMPLICATIONS FOR ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUG DEVELOPMENT AND TREATMENT

REFERENCES

• Nicod L: Lung defences: an overview. Eur Resp Rev. 2005;14:45–50.
   Google Scholar
• Snelgrove R, Williams A, Thorpe C, Hussell T: Manipulation of immunity to and pathology of respiratory infections. Expert Rev Anti-infect Ther. 2004;2:423–426.
   Google Scholar
• White D: Drug-induced pulmonary infection. Clin Chest Med. 2004;25:179–187.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiest P, Flanigan T, Salata R, Shlaes D, Katzman M, Lederman M: Serious infectious complications of corticosteroid therapy for COPD. Chest. 1989;95:1180–1184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horne N: A critical evaluation of corticosteroids in tuberculosis. Adv Tuberc Res. 1966;15:1–54.
   Google Scholar
• Horton D, Spector S: Clinical pulmonary tuberculosis in an asthmatic patient using a steroid aerosol. Chest. 1977;71:540–542.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shaikh W: Pulmonary tuberculosis in patients treated with inhaled beclomethasone. Allergy. 1992;47:327–330.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calverley P, Anderson J, Celli B, Ferguson G, Jenkins C, Jones P, Yates J, Vestbo J: Salmeterol and fluticasone propionate and survival in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. New Engl J Med. 2007;356:775–789.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kardos P, Wencker M, Glaab T, Vogelmeier C: Impact of salmeterol/fluticasone propionate versus salmeterol on exacerbations in severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;175:144–149.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ernst P, Gonsalez A, Brassard P, Suissa S: Inhaled corticosteroid use in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and the risk of hospitalization for pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;176:162–166.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beeh K, Beier J: Handle with care: targeting neutrophils in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and severe asthma? Clin Exp Allergy. 2006;36:142–157.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahler D, Huang S, Tabrizi M, Bell G: Efficacy and safety of a monoclonal antibody recognizing interleukin-8 in COPD: a pilot study. Chest. 2004;126:926–934.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strieter R, Belperio J, Keane M: Cytokines in innate host defense in the lung. J Clin Invest. 2002;109:699–705.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khalilieh S, Kassera C, Tsai M, Seiberling M, Kraan M: Effects of oral SCH 527123, a CXCR2 antagonist, on acquired immunity in healthy adults. Eur Respir J. 2007;30(Suppl 51):613s.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Konstan M, Doring G, Lands L, Hilliard K, Koker P, Bhattacharya S, Staab A, Hamilton A: Results of a phase II clinical trial of BIIL 284 BS (an LTB4 receptor antagonist) for the treatment of CF lung disease. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2005;40(Suppl 28):125–126.
   Google Scholar
• Williams R: Killing controversy. J Exp Med. 2006;203:2404.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aratani Y, Kura F, Watanabe H, Agakawa H, Takano Y, Suzuki K, Maeda N, Koyama H: Differential host susceptibility to pulmonary infections with bacteria and fungi in mice deficient in myeloperoxidase. J Infect Dis. 2000;182:1276–1279.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hirche T, Gaut J, Heinicke J, Belaaouaj A: Myeloperoxidase plays critical roles in killing Klebsiella pneumoniae and inactivating neutrophil elastase: effects on host defense. J Immunol. 2005;174:1557–1565.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kutter D, Devaquet P, Vanderstocken G, Paulus J, Marchal V: Consequences of total and subtotal myeloperoxidase deficiency: risk or benefit? Acta Haematol. 2000;104:10–15.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Belaaouaj A, McCarthy R, Baumann M, Gao Z, Ley T, Abraham S, Shapiro S: Mice lacking neutrophil elastase reveal impaired host defense against gram negative bacterial sepsis. Nat Med. 1998;4:615–618.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reeves E, Lu H, Jacobs H, Messina C, Bolsover S, Gabella G, Potma E, Warley A, Roes J, Segal A: Killing activity of neutrophils is mediated through activation of proteases by K+ flux. Nature. 2002;416:291–297.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dale D, Person R, Bolyard A, Aprikyan A, Bos C, Bonilla M, Boxer L, Kannourakis G, Zeidler C, Welte K, Benson K, Horwitz M: Mutations in the gene encoding neutrophil elastase in congenital and cyclic neutropenia. Blood. 2000;96:2317–2322.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owen C: Proteinases and oxidants as targets in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2005;2:378–385.
   Google Scholar
• Taylor J, Hattle J, Dreitz S, Troudt J, Izzo L, Basaraba R, Orme I, Matrisian L, Izzo A: Role for matrix metalloproteinase 9 in granuloma formation during pulmonary Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. Infect Immun. 2006;74:6135–6144.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keane J, Gershon S, Wise R, Mirabile-Levens E, Kaznica J, Schweiterman W, Siegel J, Braun M: Tuberculosis associated with infliximab, a tumour necrosis factor α-neutralizing agent. New Engl J Med. 2001;345:1098–1104.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dixon W, Watson K, Lunt M, Hyrich K, Silman A, Symmons D: Rates of serious infection, including site-specific and bacterial intracellular infection, in rheumatoid arthritis patients receiving anti-tumour necrosis factor therapy. Arthritis Rheum. 2006;54:2368–2376.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wallis R, Broder M, Wong J, Hanson M, Beenhover D: Granulomatous infectious diseases associated with tumour necrosis factor antagonists. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38:1261–1265.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehlers S: Role of tumour necrosis factor (TNF) in host defence against tuberculosis: implications for immunotherapies targeting TNF. Ann Rheum Dis. 2003;62:37–42.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rennard S, Fogarty C, Kelsen S, Long W, Ramsdell J, Allison J, Mahler D, Saadeh C, Siler T, Snell P, Korenblat P, Smith W, Kaye M, Mandel M, Andrews C, Prabhu R, Donohue J, Watt R, Lo K, Schlenker-Herceg R, Barnathan E, Murray J: The safety and efficacy of infliximab in moderate to severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;175:926–934.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soares A, Souza D, Pinho V, Barsante M, Nicoli J, Teixeira M: Impaired host defense to Klebsiella pneumoniae infection in mice treated with the PDE4 inhibitor rolipram. Br J Pharmacol. 2003;140:855–862.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dumont F: The interleukin-1 families of cytokines and receptors: therapeutic potential for immunomodulation and the treatment of inflammatory disorders. Expert Opin Ther Patents. 2006;16:879–912.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fantuzzi G, Zheng H, Faggioni R, Benigni F, Ghezzi P, Sipe J, Shaw A, Dinarello C: Effects of endotoxin in IL-1beta deficient mice. J Immunol. 1996;157:291–296.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohan A, Cote T, Siegel J, Braun M: Infectious complications of biological treatments of rheumatoid arthritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 2003;15:179–184.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Newbold P, Bayley D, Sapey E, Ahmad A, Parker D, Bengtsson T, Snell N, Stockley R: Evidence to support a role for IL-1β in the COPD disease process. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2005;2:A395.
   Google Scholar
• Snell N: Tuberculosis susceptibility—implications for drug development and therapy. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2003;4:1455–1460.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fernando S, Saunders B, Sluyter R, Skarrat K, Goldberg H, Marks G, Wiley J, Britton W: A polymorphism in the P2X7 gene increases susceptibility to extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;175:360–366.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Basu S, Fenton M: Toll-like receptors: function and roles in lung disease. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 2004;286:L887–L892.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanzler H, Barrat F, Hessel E, Coffman R: Therapeutic targeting of innate immunity with Toll-like receptor agonists and antagonists. Nat Med. 2007;13:552–559.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rossignol D, Lynn M: TLR4 antagonists for endotoxaemia and beyond. Curr Opin Invest Drugs. 2005;6:496–502.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ness T, Kunkel S, Hogaboam C: CCR5 antagonists: the answer to inflammatory disease? Expert Opin Ther Patents. 2006;16:1051–1065.
   Google Scholar
• Lim J, Glass W, McDermott D, Murphy P: CCR5: no longer a ‘good for nothing’ gene—chemokine control of West Nile virus infection. Trends Immunol. 2006;27:308–312.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Badewa A, Quinton L, Shellito J, Mason C: Chemokine receptor 5 and its ligands in the immune response to murine tuberculosis. Tuberculosis. 2005;85:185–195.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buer J, Balling R: Mice, microbes and models of infection. Nat Rev Genet. 2003;4:195–205.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sugawara I, Yamada H, Shi R: Pulmonary tuberculosis in various gene knockout mice with special emphasis on roles of cytokines and transcription factors. Curr Respir Med Rev. 2005;1:7–13.
   Google Scholar
• Carneiro-Sampaio M, Coutinho A: Immunity to microbes: lessons from primary immunodeficiencies. Infect Immun. 2007;75:1545–1555.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Picard C, Casanova J-L: Inherited disorders of cytokines. Curr Opin Pediatr. 2004;16:648–658.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar