Self-Blame Among Sexual Assault Victims Prospectively Predicts Revictimization: A Perceived Sociolegal Context Model of Risk

REFERENCES

• Alicke , M. D. ( 2000 ). Culpable control and the psychology of blame . Psychological Bulletin , 126 , 556 – 574 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andreoli Mathie , V. , & Kahn , A. S. ( 1995 ). The role of counterfactual thinking in rape acknowledgement . Unpublished manuscript , James Madison University , Harrisonburg , VA .
   Google Scholar
• Arata , C. M. ( 1999 ). Coping with rape: The roles of prior sexual abuse and attributions of blame . Journal of Interpersonal Violence , 14 , 62 – 78 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arata , C. M. ( 2000 ). From child victim to adult victim: A model for predicting sexual revictimization . Child Maltreatment , 5 , 28 – 38 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Atkeson , B. M. , Calhoun , K. S. , Resick , P. A. , & Ellis , E. M. ( 1982 ). Victims of rape: Repeated assessment of depressive symptoms . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 50 , 92 – 102 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron , R. M. , & Kenny , D. A. ( 1986 ). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 51 , 1173 – 1182 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Becker , J. V. , Skinner , L. J. , Abel , G. G. , & Cichon , J. ( 1986 ). Level of postassault sexual functioning in rape and incest victims . Archives of Sexual Behavior , 15 , 37 – 49 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berliner , D. ( 1991 ). Rethinking the reasonable belief defense to rape . The Yale Law Journal , 100 , 2687 – 2706 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bostwick , T. D. , & DeLucia , J. L. ( 1992 ). Effects of gender and specific dating behaviors on perceptions of sex willingness and date rape . Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 11 , 14 – 25 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Branscombe , N. R. , Wohl , M. J. A. , Owen , S. , Allison , J. A. , & N'gbala , A. ( 2003 ). Counterfactual thinking, blame assignment, and well-being in rape victims . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 25 , 265 – 273 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Breitenbecher , K. H. ( 2001 ). Sexual revictimization among women: A review of the literature focusing on empirical investigations . Aggression and Violent Behavior , 6 , 415 – 432 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bublick , E. M. ( 1999 ). Citizen no-duty rules: Rape victims and comparative fault . The Columbia Law Review , 99 , 1413 – 1489 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calhoun , K. S. , Atkeson , B. M. , & Resick , P. A. ( 1982 ). A longitudinal examination of fear reaction in victims of rape . Journal of Counseling Psychology , 29 , 655 – 661 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , C. G. , Lehman , D. R. , Silver , R. C. , Wortman , C. B. , & Ellard , J. H. ( 1996 ). Self-blame following a traumatic event: The role of perceived avoidability . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 22 , 557 – 567 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Davis , C. G. , Lehman , D. R. , Wortman , C. B. , Silver , R. C. , & Thompson , S. C. ( 1995 ). The undoing of traumatic life events . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 21 , 109 – 124 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ellis , E. M. , Atkeson , B. M. , & Calhoun , K. S. ( 1981 ). An assessment of long-term reaction to rape . Journal of Abnormal Psychology , 90 , 263 – 266 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher , B. S. , Cullen , F. T. , & Turner , M. G. ( 2000 , December ). The sexual victimization of college women ( NCJ Publication No. 182369 ).
   Google Scholar
• Foa , E. B. , Ehlers , A. , Clark , D. M. , Tolin , D. F. , & Orsillo , S. M. ( 1999 ). The Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI): Development and validation . Psychological Assessment , 11 , 303 – 314 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frazier , P. A. ( 1990 ). Victim attributions and post-rape trauma . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 59 , 298 – 304 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frazier , P. A. (1991). Self-blame as a mediator of postrape depressive symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 10, 47–57.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gidycz , C. A. , Coble , C. N. , Latham , L. , & Layman , M. J. ( 1993 ). Sexual assault experience in adulthood and prior victimization experiences: A prospective analysis . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 17 , 151 – 168 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gidycz , C. A. , Lynn , S. J. , Rich , C. L. , Marioni , N. L. , Loh , C. , et al. . ( 2001 ). The evaluation of a sexual assault risk reduction program: A multisite investigation . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 69 , 1073 – 1078 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gidycz , C. A. , Rich , C. L. , Orchowski , L. , King , C. , & Miller , A. K. ( 2006 ). The evaluation of a sexual assault self-defense and risk-reduction program for college women: A prospective study . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 30 , 173 – 186 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grauerholz , L. ( 2000 ). An ecological approach to understanding sexual revictimization: Linking personal, interpersonal, and sociocultural factors and processes . Child Maltreatment , 5 , 5 – 17 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hall , S. , French , D. P. , & Marteau , T. M. ( 2003 ). Causal attributions following serious unexpected negative events: A systematic review . Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 22 , 515 – 536 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harris , L. R. , & Weiss , D. J. ( 1995 ). Judgments of consent in simulated rape cases . Journal of Social Behavior and Personality , 10 , 79 – 90 .
   Google Scholar
• Hickman , S. E. , & Muehlenhard , C. L. ( 1999 ). ‘By the semi-mystical appearance of a condom’: How young women and men communicate sexual consent in heterosexual situations . The Journal of Sex Research , 36 , 258 – 272 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hilton , D. J. , & Slugoski , B. R. ( 1986 ). Knowledge-based causal attribution: The abnormal focus model . Psychological Review , 93 , 75 – 88 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janoff-Bulman , R. ( 1979 ). Characterological versus behavioral self-blame: Inquiries into depression and rape . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 37 , 1789 – 1809 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janoff-Bulman , R. ( 1985 ). The aftermath of victimization: Rebuilding shattered assumptions . In C. R. Figley (Ed.), Trauma and its wake: Treatment of post-traumatic stress disorder (pp. 15 – 35 ). New York : Brunner/Mazel .
   Google Scholar
• Johnson , A. G. ( 1980 ). On the prevalence of rape in the United States . Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society , 6 , 136 – 146 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kahn , A. S. , Andreoli Mathie , V. , & Torgler , C. ( 1994 ). Rape scripts and rape acknowledgement . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 18 , 53 – 66 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kessler , R. C. , Sonnega , A. , Bromet , E. , Hughes , M. , & Nelson , C. B. ( 1995 ). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey . Archives of General Psychiatry , 52 , 1048 – 1060 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilpatrick , D. G. , Best , C. L. , Veronen , L. J. , Amick , A. E. , Villeponteaux , L. A. , & Ruff , G. A. ( 1985 ). Mental health correlates of criminal victimization: A random community survey . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 53 , 866 – 873 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kilpatrick , D. G. , Resick , P. A. , & Veronen , L. J. ( 1981 ). Effects of a rape experience: A longitudinal study . Journal of Social Issues , 37 , 105 – 122 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koss , M. P. ( 1985 ). The hidden rape victim: Personality, attitudinal, and situational characteristics . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 9 , 193 – 212 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koss , M. P. ( 1992 ). The underdetection of rape: Methodological choices influence incidence estimates . Journal of Social Issues , 48 , 61 – 75 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koss , M. P. ( 1998 ). Hidden rape: Sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of students in higher education . In M. E. Odem & J. Clay-Warner (Eds.), Confronting rape and sexual assault (pp. 51 – 69 ). Wilmington , DE : Scholarly Resources .
   Google Scholar
• Koss , M. P. , & Gidycz , C. A. ( 1985 ). Sexual Experiences Survey: Reliability and validity . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 53 , 422 – 423 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koss , M. P. , Gidycz , C. A. , & Wisniewski , N. ( 1987 ). The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 55 , 162 – 170 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koss , M. P. , & Oros , C. J. ( 1982 ). Sexual Experiences Survey: A research instrument investigating sexual aggression and victimization . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 50 , 455 – 457 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lebowitz , L. , & Roth , S. ( 1994 ). “I feel like a slut”: The cultural context and women's response to being raped . Journal of Traumatic Stress , 7 , 363 – 390 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Littleton , H. , & Radecki Breitkopf , C. ( 2006 ). Coping with the experience of rape . Psychology of Women Quaterly , 30 , 106 – 116 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lynn , S. J. , Pintar , J. , Fite , R. , Ecklund , K. , & Stafford , J. ( 2004 ). Toward a social-narrative model of revictimization . In L. J. Koenig , L. S. Doll. , A. O'Leary , & W. Pequegnat (Eds.), From child sexual abuse to adult sexual risk: Trauma, revictimization, and intervention (pp. 159 – 180 ). Washington DC : American Psychological Association .
   Google Scholar
• MacKinnon , D. P. , & Dwyer , J. H. ( 1993 ). Estimating mediated effects in prevention studies . Evaluation Review , 17 , 144 – 158 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandel , D. R. , & Lehman , D. R. ( 1996 ). Counterfactual thinking and ascriptions of cause and preventability . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 71 , 450 – 463 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Markus , H. ( 1977 ). Self-schemata and processing of information about the self . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 35 , 63 – 78 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitts , V. L. , & Schwartz , M. D. ( 1993 ). Promoting self-blame in hidden rape cases . Humanity and Society , 17 , 383 – 398 .
   Google Scholar
• Remick , L. A. ( 1993 ). Read her lips: An argument for a verbal consent standard in rape . University of Pennsylvania Law Review , 141 , 1103 – 1151 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Renner , K. E. , Alksnis , C. , & Park , L. ( 1997 ). The standard of social justice as a research process . Canadian Psychology , 38 , 91 – 102 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rothbaum , F. , Weisz , J. R. , & Snyder , S. S. ( 1982 ). Changing the world and changing the self: A two-process model of perceived control . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 42 , 5 – 37 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russell , D. E. H. ( 1983 ). The incidence and prevalence of intrafamilial and extrafamilial sexual abuse of female children . Child Abuse and Neglect , 7 , 133 – 146 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sawyer , R. G. , Pinciaro , P. J. , & Jessell , J. K. ( 1998 ). Effects of coercion and verbal consent on university students' perception of date rape . American Journal of Health Behaviors , 22 , 46 – 53 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherman , S. J. , & McConnell , A. R. ( 1995 ). Dysfunctional implications of counterfactual thinking: When alternatives to reality fail us . In N. J. Roese & J. M. Olson (Eds.), What might have been: The social psychology of counterfactual thinking (pp. 199 – 231 ). Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Sobel , M. E. ( 1982 ). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural models . In S. Leinhardt (Ed.), Sociological methodology (pp. 290 – 312 ). San Francisco : Jossey-Bass .
   Google Scholar
• Testa , M. , VanZile–Tamsen , C. , Livingston , J. A. , & Koss , M. P. ( 2004 ). Assessing women's experiences of sexual aggression using the Sexual Experiences Survey: Evidence for validility and implications for research . Psychology of Women Quaterly , 28 , 256 – 265 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tjaden , P. , & Thoennes , N. ( 2000 , November ). Full report of the prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women: Findings from the National Violence Against Women Survey ( NCJ Publication No. 183781 ).
   Google Scholar