Heart Rate and Affective Reactions to State Self-Objectification as a Function of Gender

REFERENCES

• American Psychiatric Association . ( 2000 ). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders ( , 4th ed. , text rev.) . Washington , DC : Author .
   Google Scholar
• American Psychological Association . ( 2010 ). American Psychological Association ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct . Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx
   Google Scholar
• American Psychological Association, Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls . ( 2007 ). Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls . Washington , DC : American Psychological Association . Retrieved from www.apa.org/pi/wpo/sexualization.html
   Google Scholar
• Bellizzi , J. A. , & Hasty , R. W. ( 2001 ). The effects of a stated organizational policy on inconsistent disciplinary action based on salesperson gender and weight . Journal of Personal Selling and Sales Management , 21 , 189 – 198 .
   Google Scholar
• BIOPAC Systems, Inc. ( 2010 ). Application Note 233: Heart Rate Variability–Preparing Data for Analysis Using AcqKnowledge . Retrieved from http://www.biopac.com
   Google Scholar
• Boroughs , M. , & Thompson , J. K. (2002). Exercise status and sexual orientation as moderators of body image disturbance and eating disorders in males. International Journal of Eating Disorders , 31, 307–311. doi: 10.1002/eat.10031
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley , M. M. , Codispoti , M. , Cuthbert , B. N. , & Lang , P. J. ( 2001 ). Emotion and motivation I: Defensive and appetitive reactions in picture processing . Emotion , 1 , 276 – 298 . doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.1.3.276
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calogero , R. M. ( 2004 ). A test of objectification theory: The effect of the male gaze on appearance concerns in college women . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 28 , 16 – 21 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Calogero , R. M. , & Pina , A. ( 2011 ). Body guilt: Preliminary evidence for a further subjective experience of self-objectification . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 35 , 428 – 440 . doi: 10.1177/0361684311408564
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cook , E. W. , III , & Turpin , G. ( 1997 ). Differentiating orienting, startle, and defense responses: the role of affect and its implications for psychopathology . In P. J. Lang , R. F. Simmons , & M. Balaban (Eds.), Attention and orienting: sensory and motivational processes (pp. 137 – 164 ). Hillsdale , NJ : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Elsesser , K. , Heuschen , I. , Pundt , I. , & Sartory , G. ( 2006 ). Attentional bias and evoked heart-rate response in specific phobia . Cognition and Emotion , 20 , 1092 – 1107 . doi: 10.1080/02699930500375712
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fouts , G. , & Burggraf , K. ( 2000 ). Television situation comedies: Female weight, male negative comments, and audience reaction . Sex Roles , 42 , 925 – 932 . doi: 10.1023/A:1007054618340
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredrickson , B. L. , & Roberts , T. ( 1997 ). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 21 , 173 – 206 . doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fredrickson , B. L. , Roberts , T. , Noll , S. M. , Quinn , D. M. , & Twenge , J. M. ( 1998 ). That swimsuit becomes you: Sex differences in self-objectification, restrained eating, and math performance . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 75 , 269 – 284 . doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.269
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gapinski , K. D. , Brownell , K. D. , & LaFrance , M. ( 2003 ). Body objectification and “fat talk”: Effects on emotion, motivation, and cognitive performance . Sex Roles , 48 , 377 – 388 . doi: 10.1023/A:1023516209973
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gay , R. K. , & Castano , E. ( 2010 ). My body or my mind: The impact of state and trait objectification on women's cognitive resources . European Journal of Social Psychology , 40 , 695 – 703 . doi: 10.1002/ejsp.731
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Graham , F. K. , & Keen Clifton , R. ( 1966 ). Heart-rate change as a component of the orienting response . Psychological Bulletin , 65 , 305 – 320 . doi: 10.1037/h0023258
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Green , M. A. , Read , K. E. , Davids , C. M. , Kugler , D. M. , Jepson , A. J. , Stillman , A. , & … Ohrt , T. K. ( 2012 ). The psychophysiological consequences of state self-objectification and predictors of clothing-related distress . Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 31 , 194 – 219 . doi: 10.1521/jscp.2012.31.2.194
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hald , G. M. , Malamuth , N. , & Yuen , C. ( 2010 ). Pornography and attitudes supporting violence against women: Revisiting the relationships in nonexperimental studies . Aggressive Behavior , 36 , 14 – 20 . doi: 10.1002/ab.20328
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hebl , M. R. , King , E. B. , & Lin , J. ( 2004 ). The swimsuit becomes us all: Ethnicity, gender, and vulnerability to self-objectification . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 30 , 1322 – 1331 . doi: 10.1177/0146167204264052
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jansma , L. L. , Linz , D. G. , Mulac , A. , & Imrich , D. J. ( 1997 ). Men's interactions with women after viewing sexually explicit films: Does degradation make a difference? Communication Monographs , 63 , 1 – 24 . doi: 10.1080/03637759709376402
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kiefer , A. , Sekaquaptewa , D. , & Barczyk , A. ( 2006 ). When appearance concerns make women look bad: Solo status and body image concerns diminish women's academic performance . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 42 , 78 – 86 . doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2004.12.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kozak , M. , Frankenhauser , H. , & Roberts , T. ( 2009 ). Objects of desire: Objectification as a function of male sexual orientation . Psychology of Men & Masculinity , 10 , 225 – 230 . doi: 10.1037/a0016257
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lacey , J. I. , & Lacey , B. C. ( 1970 ). Some autonomic-central nervous system interrelationships . In P. Black (Ed.), Physiological correlates of emotion (pp. 205 – 227 ). New York , NY : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Maranto , C. L. , & Stenoien , A. F. ( 2000 ). Weight discrimination: A multidisciplinary analysis . Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal , 12 , 9 – 24 . doi: 10.1023/A:1007712500496
   Google Scholar
• Martins , Y. , Tiggemann , M. , & Kirkbride , A. ( 2007 ). Those speedos become them: The role of self-objectification in gay and heterosexual men's body image . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 33 , 634 – 647 . doi: 10.1177/0146167206297403
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKinley , N. M. , & Hyde , J. S. ( 1996 ). The Objectified Body Consciousness Scale . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 20 , 181 – 215 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Michaels , M. S. , Parent , M. C. , & Moradi , B. ( 2012 ). Does exposure to muscularity-idealizing images have self-objectification consequences for heterosexuals and sexual minority men? Psychology of Men & Masculinity . Advance online publication . doi: 10.1037/a0027259 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moradi , B. , & Huang , Y. ( 2008 ). Objectification theory and psychology of women: A decade of advances and future directions . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 32 , 377 – 398 . doi: 0361-6843/08
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muehlenkamp , J. J. , & Saris-Baglama , R. N. ( 2002 ). Self-objectification and its psychological outcomes for college women . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 26 , 371 – 379 . doi: 10.1111/1471-6402.t01-1-00076
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mundorf , N. , Allen , M. , D'Alessio , D. , & Emmers-Sommer , T. M. ( 2007 ). Effects of sexually explicit media . In R. W. Preiss , B. M. Gayle , N. Burrell , M. Allen , & J. Bryant (Eds.), Mass media effects research: Advances through meta-analysis (pp. 181 – 198 ). New York , NY : Erlbaum .
   Google Scholar
• Noll , S. M. , & Frederickson , B. L. ( 1998 ). A meditational model linking self-objectification, body shame, and disordered eating . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 22 , 623 – 636 . doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1998.tb00181.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parent , M. C. , & Moradi , B. ( 2011 ). His biceps become him: A test of objectification theory's application to drive for muscularity and propensity for steroid use in college men . Journal of Counseling Psychology , 58 , 246 – 256 . doi: 10.1037/a0021398
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pollatos , O. , & Schandry , R. ( 2008 ). Emotional processing and emotional memory are modulated by interoceptive awareness . Cognitive and Emotion , 22 , 272 – 287 . doi: 10.1080/02699930701357535
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quinn , D. M. , Kallen , R. W. , & Cathey , C. ( 2006 ). Body on my mind: The lingering effect of state self-objectification . Sex Roles , 55 , 869 – 874 . doi: 10.1007/s11199-006-9140-x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Regan , P. C. ( 1996 ). Sexual outcasts: The perceived impact of body weight gender on sexuality . Journal of Applied Social Psychology , 26 , 1803 – 1815 . doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1996.tb00099.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Saguy , T. , Quinn , D. M. , Dovidio , J. F. , & Pratto , F. ( 2010 ). Interacting like a body: Objectification can lead women to narrow their presence in social interactions . Psychological Science , 21 , 178 – 182 . doi: 10.1177/0956797609357751
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slater , A. , & Tiggemann , M. ( 2002 ). A test of objectification theory in adolescent girls . Sex Roles , 46 , 343 – 349 . doi: 10.1023/A:1020232714705
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strelan , P. , & Hargreaves , D. ( 2005 ). Reasons for exercise and body esteem: Men's responses to self-objectification . Sex Roles , 53 ( 7/8 ). doi: 10.1007/s11199-005-7137-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing, & Electrophysiology . ( 1996 ). Heart rate variability: Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation and clinical use . Circulation , 93 , 1043 – 1065 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiggemann , M. ( 2001 ). Person x situation interactions in body dissatisfaction . International Journal of Eating Disorders , 29 , 65 – 70 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiggemann , M. , & Andrew , R. (2012). Clothes make a difference: The role of self-objectification. Sex Roles , 66, 646–654. doi: 10.1007/s11199-011-0085-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiggemann , M. , & Kuring , J. K. ( 2004 ). The role of body objectification in disordered eating and depressed mood . British Journal of Clinical Psychology , 43 , 299 – 311 . doi: 10.1348/0144665031752925
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tiggemann , M. , & Slater , A. ( 2001 ). A test of objectification theory in former dancers and non-dancers . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 25 , 57 – 64 . doi: 10.1111/1471-6402.00007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tolman , D. L. , Impett , E. A. , Tracy , A. J. , & Michael , A. ( 2006 ). Looking good, sounding good: Femininity ideology and adolescent girls’ mental health . Psychology of Women Quarterly , 30 , 85 – 95 . doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00265.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Census Bureau . ( 2000 ). Diversity data: Profiles by area. Retrieved from http://diversitydata-archive.org
   Google Scholar
• Watson , D. , & Clark , L. A. ( 1994 ). The PANAS-X: Manual for the positive and negative affect schedule—Expanded Form . Iowa City : The University of Iowa .
   Google Scholar
• Wiseman , M. C. , & Moradi , B. ( 2010 ). Body image and eating disorder symptoms in sexual minority men: A test and extension of objectification theory . Journal of Counseling Psychology , 57 , 154 – 166 . doi: 10.1037/a0018937
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yelland , C. , & Tiggemann , M. ( 2003 ). Muscularity and the gay ideal: Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in homosexual men . Eating Behaviors , 4 , 107 – 116 . doi: 10.1016/S1471-0153(03)00014-X
   PubMedGoogle Scholar