Are Vivid (Vs. Pallid) Threats Persuasive? Examining the Effects of Threat Vividness in Health Communications

References

• Amos, C., & Spears, N. (2010). Generating a visceral response. Journal of Advertising, 39, 25–38. doi:10.2753/JOA0091-3367390302
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Anderson, C. A. (1983). Imagination and expectation: The effect of imagining behavioral scripts on personal intentions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(2), 293–305. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.2.293
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arthur, D., & Quester, P. (2004). Who’s afraid of that ad? Applying segmentation to the protection motivation model. Psychology & Marketing, 21(9), 671–696. doi:10.1002/mar.20024
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Babin, L. A., & Burns, A. C. (1997). Effects of print ad pictures and copy containing instructions to imagine on mental imagery that mediates attitudes. Journal of Advertising, 26, 33–44. doi:10.1080/00913367.1997.10673527
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bailey, J. O., Bailenson, J. N., Flora, J., Armel, K. C., Voelker, D., & Reeves, B. (2015). The impact of vivid messages on reducing energy consumption related to hot water use. Environment and Behavior, 47(5), 570–592. doi:10.1177/0013916514551604
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berry, T. R., & Carson, V. (2010). Ease of imagination, message framing, and physical activity messages. British Journal of Health Psychology, 15, 197–211. doi:10.1348/135910709x447811
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Block, L. G., & Keller, P. A. (1997). Effects of self-efficacy and vividness on the persuasiveness of health communications. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 6, 31–54. doi:10.1207/s15327663jcp0601_02
   Google Scholar
• Blondé, J., & Girandola, F. (2016). Revealing the elusive effects of vividness: A meta-analysis of studies assessing the effect of vividness on persuasion. Social Influence, 11(2), 111–129. doi:10.1080/15534510.2016.1157096
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bone, P. F., & Ellen, P. S. (1992). The generation and consequences of communication-evoked imagery. Journal of Consumer Research, 19, 93–104. doi:10.1086/209289
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Boster, F. J., & Mongeau, P. (1984). Fear-arousing persuasive messages. In R. N. Bostrom & B. H. Westley (Eds.), Communication yearbook 8 (pp. 330–375). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Broemer, P. (2004). Ease of imagination moderates reactions to differently framed health messages. European Journal of Social Psychology, 34, 103–119. doi:10.1002/ejsp.185
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown, S., & Locker, E. (2009). Defensive responses to an emotive anti-alcohol message. Psychology & Health, 24, 517–528. doi:10.1080/08870440801911130
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bugelski, B. R. (1983). Imagery and the thought processes. In A. Sheikh (Ed.), Imagery: Current theory, research and application (pp. 72–95). New York, NY: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Burns, A. C., Biswas, A., & Babin, L. A. (1993). The operation of visual imagery as a mediator of advertising effects. Journal of Advertising, 22, 71–85. doi:10.1080/00913367.1993.10673405
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cacioppo, J. T., Hippel, W., & Ernst, J. M. (1997). Mapping cognitive structure and processes through verbal content: The thought-listing technique. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65, 928–940. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.65.6.928
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Childers, T. L., & Houston, M. J. (1984). Conditions for a picture-superiority effect on consumer memory. Journal of Consumer Research, 11(2), 643–654. doi:10.1086/209001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, R. L., Taylor, S. E., Wood, J. V., & Thompson, S. C. (1988). The vividness effect: Elusive or illusory? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 24(1), 1–18. doi:10.1016/0022-1031(88)90041-8
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahl, D. W., & Hoeffler, S. (2004). Visualizing the self: Exploring the potential benefits and drawbacks for new product evaluation. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 21, 259–267. doi:10.1111/j.0737-6782.2004.00077
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeHoog, N., Stroebe, W., & deWit, J. B. F. (2005). The impact of fear appeals on the processing and acceptance of action recommendations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 24–33. doi:10.1177/0146167204271321
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeHoog, N., Stroebe, W., & deWit, J. B. F. (2007). The impact of vulnerability to and severity of a health risk on processing and acceptance of fear-arousing communications: A meta-analysis. Review of General Psychology, 11, 258–285. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.11.3.258
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• DeHoog, N., Stroebe, W., & deWit, J. B. F. (2008). The processing of fear-arousing communications: How biased processing leads to persuasion. Social Influence, 3, 84–113. doi:10.1080/15534510802185836
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• deWit, J. B. F., Das, E., & Vet, R. (2008). What works best: objective statistics or a personal testimonial? An assessment of the persuasive effects of different types of message evidence on risk perception. Health Psychology, 27(1), 110–115. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.27.1.110
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dillard, A. J., & Main, J. L. (2013). Using a health message with a testimonial to motivate colon cancer screening: Associations with perceived identification and vividness. Health Education & Behavior, 40(6), 673–682. doi:10.1177/1090198112473111
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Earl, A., & Albarracin, D. (2007). Nature, decay, and spiraling of the effects of fear-inducing arguments and HIV counseling and testing: A meta-analysis of the short- and long term outcomes of HIV-prevention interventions. Health Psychology, 26(4), 496–506. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.26.4.496
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Edell, J. & Staelin, R. (1983). The information processing of pictures in print advertisements. Journal of Consumer Research, 10, 45–60. doi:10.1086/208944
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eppright, D. R., Hunt, J. B., Tanner, J. B., & Franke, G. R. (2002). Fear, coping and information: A pilot study on motivating a healthy response. Health Marketing Quarterly, 20(1), 51–73. doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2010.01544
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Escalas, J. E. (2004). Imagine yourself in the product: Mental simulation, narrative transportation, and persuasion. Journal of Advertising, 33(2), 37–48. doi:10.1080/00913367.2004.10639163
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Floyd, D. L., Prentice-Dunn, S., & Rogers, R. W. (2000). A meta-analysis of research on protection motivation theory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30, 407–429. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02323
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frey, K. P., & Eagly, A. H. (1993). Vividness can undermine the persuasiveness of messages. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 32–44. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.65.1.32
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guadagno, R. E., Rhoads, K. L., & Sagarin, B. J. (2011). Figural vividness and persuasion: Capturing the “elusive” vividness effect. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 626–638. doi:10.1177/0146167211399585
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Higbee, K. L. (1969). Fifteen years of fear arousal: Research on threat appeals: 1953-1968. Psychological Bulletin, 72, 426–444. doi:10.1037/h0028430
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Janis, I. L., & Feshbach, S. (1953). Effects of fear-arousing communications. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 48, 78–92. doi:10.1037/h0060732
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keller, P. A., & Block, L. G. (1997). Vividness effects: A resource-matching perspective. Journal of Consumer research, 24, 295–304. doi:10.1086/209511
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keller, P. A., & McGill, A. (1994). Differences in the relative influence of product attributes under alternative processing conditions: Attribute importance versus attribute ease of imageability. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 3(1), 29–49. doi:10.1016/S1057-7408(08)80027-7
   Google Scholar
• Kisielius, J., & Sternthal, B. (1984). Detecting and explaining vividness effects in attitudinal judgments. Journal of Marketing Research, 21, 54–64. doi:10.2307/3151792
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kisielius, J., & Sternthal, B. (1986). Examining the vividness controversy: An availability-valence interpretation. Journal of Consumer Research, 12(4), 418–431. doi:10.1086/208527
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Latour, M. S., & Tanner, J. F. (2003). Radon: Appealing to our fears. Psychology & Marketing, 20(5), 377–394. doi:10.1002/mar.10078
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacGill, A. L., & Anand, P. (1989). The effect of vivid attributes on the evaluation of cognitive elaboration: The role of differential attention and cognitive elaboration. Journal of Consumer Research, 16, 188–196. doi:10.1086/209207
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• MacInnis, D. J., & Price, L. L. (1987). The role of imagery in information processing: Review and extensions. Journal of Consumer Research, 13(4), 473–491. doi:10.1086/209082
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Milne, S., Sheeran, P., & Orbell, S. (2000). Prediction and intervention in health-related behavior: A meta-analytic review of protection motivation theory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30(1), 106–143. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02308
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mongeau, P. (1998). Another look at fear-arousing persuasive appeals. In M. Allen & R. S. Preiss (Eds.), Persuasion: Advances through meta-analysis (pp. 53–68). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton.
   Google Scholar
• Morales, A. C., Wu, E. C., & Fitzsimons, G. J. (2012). How disgust enhances the effectiveness of fear appeals. Journal of Marketing Research, 49(3), 383–393. doi:10.1509/jmr.07.0364
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nisbett, R. E., & Ross, L. (1980). Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Noar, S. M., Hall, M. G., Francis, D. B., Ribisl, K. M., Pepper, J. K., & Brewer, N. T. (2016). Pictorial cigarette pack warnings: A meta-analysis of experimental studies. Tobacco Control, 25(3), 341–354. doi:10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2014-051978
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
   Google Scholar
• Paivio, A., & Csapo, K. (1973). Picture superiority in free recall: Imagery or dual-coding? Cognitive Psychology, 5(2), 176–206. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90032-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters, G. J. Y., Ruiter, R. A. C., & Kok, G. (2013). Threatening communication: A critical re-analysis and a revised meta-analytic test of fear appeal theory. Health Psychology Review, 7, 8–31. doi:10.1080/17437199.2012.703527
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrova, P. K., & Cialdini, R. B. (2005). Fluency of consumption imagery and the backfire effects of imagery appeals. Journal of Consumer Research, 32, 442–452. doi:10.1086/497556
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrova, P. K., & Cialdini, R. B. (2008). Evoking the imagination as a strategy of influence. In C. Haugtvedt, P. Herr, & F. Kardès (Eds.), Handbook of consumer psychology (pp. 505–524). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Reyes, R. M., Thompson, W. C., & Bower, G. H. (1980). Judgmental biases resulting from differing availabilities of arguments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 2–12. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.39.1.2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Richardson, A. (1983). Imagery: Definition and types. In A. Sheikh (Ed.), Imagery: Current theory, research and application (pp. 3–42). New York, NY: Wiley.
   Google Scholar
• Rogers, R. W. (1983). Cognitive and physiological processes in fear appeals and attitude change: A revised theory of protection motivation. In J. T. Cacioppo & R. E. Petty (Eds.), Social psychophysiology: A sourcebook (pp. 153–176). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rook, K. S. (1986). Encouraging preventive behavior for distant and proximal health threats: Effects of vivid versus abstract information. Journal of Gerontology, 41, 526–534. doi:10.1093/geronj/41.4.526
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rook, K. S. (1987). Effects of case history versus abstract information on health attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 17, 533–553. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1987.tb00329
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ruiter, R. A. C., Kessels, L. T. E., Peters, G. J. Y., & Kok, G. (2014). Sixty years of fear appeal research: Current state of the evidence. International Journal of Psychology, 49, 63–70. doi:10.1002/ijop.12042
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shedler, J., & Manis, M. (1986). Can the availability heuristic explain vividness effects? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(1), 26–36. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.51.1.26
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shen, L., & Dillard, J. P. (2014). Threat, fear, and persuasion: Review and critique of questions about functional form. Review of Communication Research, 2(1), 94–114. doi:10.12840
   Google Scholar
• Smith, S. M., & Shaffer, D. R. (2000). Vividness can undermine or enhance message processing: The moderating role of vividness congruency. Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 26, 769–779. doi:10.1177/0146167200269003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stafford, M. R. (1996). Tangibility in services advertising: An investigation of verbal versus visual cues. Journal of Advertising, 25, 13–28. doi:10.1080/00913367.1996.10673504
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephenson, M., & Witte, K. (1998). Fear, threat, and perceptions of efficacy from frightening skin cancer messages. Public Health Review, 26, 147–174.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Tannenbaum, M. B., Helper, J., Zimmerman, R. S., Saul L., Jacobs, S., Wilson, K., & Albarracin, D. (2015). Appealing to fear: A meta-Analysis of fear appeal effectiveness and theories. Psychological Bulletin, 141(6), 1178–1204. doi:10.1037/a0039729
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor, S. E., & Thompson, S. C. (1982). Stalking the elusive “vividness” effect. Psychological Review, 89, 155–181. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.89.2.155
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1973). Availibility: A heuristic for judging frequency and probability. Cognitive Psychology, 5(2), 677–695. doi:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90033-9
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Umeh, K. (2012). Does a credible source also need a fearful audience? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 42(7), 1716–1744. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2012.00916
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van’t Riet, J., & Ruiter, R. A. C. (2013). Defensive reactions to health-promoting information: An overview and implications for future research. Health Psychology Review, 7, 104–136. doi:0.1080/17437199.2011.606782
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb, T. L., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Does changing behavioural intentions engender behavior change? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 249–268. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.249
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wheeler, S. C., Briñol, P., & Hermann, A. D. (2007). Resistance to persuasion as self-regulation: Ego-depletion and its effects on attitude change processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 150–156. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.01.001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Will, K. E., Sabo, C. S., & Porter, B. E. (2009). Evaluation of the Boost’em in the back seat program: Using fear and efficacy to increase booster seat use. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 41(1), 57–65. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2008.09.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson, M. G., Northcraft, G. B., & Neale, M. A. (1989). Information competition and vividness effects in on-line judgments. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 44(1), 132–139. doi:10.1016/0749-5978(89)90039-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K. (1992). Putting the fear back into fear appeals: The extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs, 59, 329–349. doi:10.1080/03637759209376276
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K. (1994). Fear control and danger control: A test of the extended parallel process model. Communication Monographs, 61, 113–134. doi:10.1080/03637759409376328
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Witte, K., & Allen, M. (2000). A meta-analysis of fear appeals: Implications for effective public health campaigns. Health Education and Behavior, 27, 591–616. doi:10.1177/109019810002700506
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, N. C. H., & Cappella, J. N. (2009). Antismoking threat and efficacy appeals: Effects on smoking cessation intentions for smokers with low and high readiness to quit. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 37(1), 1–20. doi:10.1080/00909880802593928
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhao, M., Hoeffler, S., & Dahl, D. (2009). The role of imagination-focused visualization on new product evaluation. Journal of Marketing Research, 46(1), 46–55. doi:10.1509/jmkr.46.1.46
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar