References / Referencias
- Aturupane, H., Glewwe, P., & Wisniewskiu, S. (2013). The impact of school quality, socio-economic factors and child health on students’ academic performance: Evidence from Sri Lankan primary schools. Education Economics, 21(1), 2–37. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09645292.2010.511852
- Ball, S. J., & Youdell, D. (2008). Hidden privatisation in public education. Educational International. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228394301_Hidden_privatisation_in_public_education
- Bíró, Z. H. (2020). Az árnyékoktatásról internetes magánoktatói hirdetések tükrében [On shadow education in the light of online private tutor ads]. Educatio, 29(2), 243–260. [in Hungarian]. https://doi.org/10.1556/2063.29.2020.2.5
- Bray, M. (1986). New resources for education: Community management and financing of schools in less developed countries. The Commonwealth Secretariat.
- Bray, M. (1996). Counting the full cost: Parental and community financing of education in East Asia. The World Bank in collaboration with UNICEF. https://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1596/0-8213-3827-7
- Bray, M. (1999a). The private costs of public schooling: Household and community financing of primary education in Cambodia. UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP) in collaboration with UNICEF. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000117632?posInSet=1&queryId=51f9a5ff-c13f-46d5-b8dc-86d02c0c3bcc
- Bray, M. (1999b). The shadow education system: Private tutoring and its implications for planners. UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000180205?posInSet=2&queryId=7b430433-89e3-4a12-8488-38dc79c0c03a
- Bray, M. (2009). Confronting the shadow education system: What government policies for what private tutoring? UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP). https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000185106?posInSet=2&queryId=1511cb41-bb1f-47ac-9649-b382ac54bc43 [Español 2013: Un Sistema educativo a la sombre: Las tutorías privadas. CIDE. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000185106?posInSet=2&queryId=1511cb41-bb1f-47ac-9649-b382ac54bc43].
- Bray, M. (2011). The challenge of shadow education: Private tutoring and its implications for policy makers in the European Union. European Commission. https://nesetweb.eu/en/resources/library/the-challenge-of-shadow-education-private-tutoring-and-its-implications-for-policy-makers-in-the-european-union/
- Bray, M. (2014). The impact of shadow education on student academic achievement: Why the research is inconclusive and what can be done about it. Asia Pacific Education Review, 15(3), 381–389. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-014-9326-9
- Bray, M. (2017). Schooling and its supplements: Changing global patterns and implications for comparative education. Comparative Education Review, 61(3), 469–491. https://doi.org/10.1086/692709
- Bray, M. (2021a). Shadow education in Europe: Growing prevalence, underlying forces, and policy implications. ECNU Review of Education, 4(3), 442–475. https://doi.org/10.1177/2096531119890142
- Bray, M. (2021b). Shadow education in Africa: Private supplementary tutoring and its policy implications. Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong. https://cerc.edu.hku.hk/books/shadow-education-in-africa-private-supplementary-tutoring-and-its-policy-implications/
- Bray, M., & Bunly, S. (2005). Balancing the books: Household financing of basic education in Cambodia. Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong in collaboration with the World Bank. https://cerc.edu.hku.hk/books/balancing-the-books-household-financing-of-basic-education-in-cambodia/
- Bray, M., Kobakhidze, M. N., & Suter, L. E. (2020). The challenges of measuring outside-school-time educational activities: Experiences and lessons from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). Comparative Education Review, 64(1), 87–106. https://doi.org/10.1086/706776
- Bray, M., Kobakhidze, M. N., Zhang, W., & Liu, J. (2018). The hidden curriculum in a hidden marketplace: Relationships and values in Cambodia’s shadow education system. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 50(4), 435–455. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2018.1461932
- Bray, M., & Kwo, O. (2014). Regulating private tutoring for public good: Policy options for supplementary education in Asia. Comparative Education Research Centre, The University of Hong Kong, and Bangkok. UNESCO. https://cerc.edu.hku.hk/books/regulating-private-tutoring-for-public-good-policy-options-for-supplementary-education-asia/
- Bray, M., & Lillis, K. (Eds.) (1988). Community financing of education: Issues and policy implications in less developed countries. Pergamon Press. https://books.google.com.hk/books?id=kIiLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PR2&lpg=PR2&dq=%22Community+financing+of+education%22+%22Issues+and+policy+implications+in+less+developed+countries%22&source=bl&ots=9WqhtJ7NrV&sig=ACfU3U0qba7h9FOf0AbYc37enmwwAVXNpw&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y&hl=zh-CN&sourceid=cndr#v=onepage&q=%22Community%20financing%20of%20education%22%20%22Issues%20and%20policy%20implications%20in%20less%20developed%20countries%22&f=false
- Bray, M., & Thomas, R. M. (1995). Levels of comparison in educational studies: Different insights from different literatures and the value of multilevel analyses. Harvard Educational Review, 65(3), 472–490. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.65.3.g3228437224v4877
- Bray, M., & Ventura, A. (2022). Multiple systems, multiple shadows: Diversity of supplementary tutoring received by private-school students in Dubai. International Journal of Educational Development, 92, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2022.102624
- Brehm, W. (2021). Cambodia for sale: Everyday privatization in education and beyond. Routledge. https://www.routledge.com/Cambodia-for-Sale-Everyday-Privatization-in-Education-and-Beyond/Brehm/p/book/9780367712037
- China, CPC [Communist Party of China] Central Committee and the General Office of the State Council. (2021). Policy on further reducing the workload of students and the burden of out-of-school training in the compulsory education stage. [in Chinese]. https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/-Qd8YcNaEx_3Y2qkTe3WOA
- Christensen, S., Grønbek, T., & Bækdahl, F. (2021). The private tutoring industry in Denmark: Market making and modes of moral justification. ECNU Review of Education, 4(3), 520–545. https://doi.org/10.1177/2096531120960742
- Christensen, S. (2022). Singapore: Shadow curriculum between “private tuition” and “enrichment”. In Y. C. Kim, & J. H. Jung (Eds.), Theorizing shadow education and academic success in East Asia: Understanding the meaning, value and use of shadow education by East Asian students (pp. 175–191). Routledge. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781003097860/theorizing-shadow-education-academic-success-east-asia-young-chun-kim-jung-hoon-jung?refId=3aba6a11-cf24-4d6c-b3f2-871084b30dc7&context=ubx
- Christensen, S., & Zhang, W. (Eds.). (2021). Shadow education in the Nordic countries. Special Issue of ECNU Review of Education, 4(3). http://www.roe.ecnu.edu.cn/f9/1d/c12911a391453/page.htm
- Cole, R. (2017). Estimating the impact of private tutoring on academic performance: Primary students in Sri Lanka. Education Economics, 25(2), 142–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/09645292.2016.1196163
- Dawson, W. (2009). The tricks of the teacher: Shadow education and corruption in Cambodia. In S. Heyneman (Ed.), Buying your way into heaven: Education and corruption in international perspective (pp. 51–74). Sense.
- El-Emadi, A. A., Said, Z., & Friesen, H. L. (2019). Teaching style differences between male and female science teachers in Qatari schools: Possible impact on student achievement. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 15(12), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/109236
- Eng, R. (2019). The tutoring industry in Hong Kong: From the past four decades to the future. ECNU Review of Education, 2(1), 77–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/2096531119840857
- Entrich, S. (2021). Worldwide shadow education and social inequality: Explaining differences in the socioeconomic gap in access to shadow education across 63 societies. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 61(6), 441–475. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020715220987861
- Entrich, S. R., & Lauterbach, W. (2022). Fearful future: Worldwide shadow education epidemic and the reproduction of inequality outside public schooling. In Y. C. Kim, & J. H. Jung (Eds.), Theorizing shadow education and academic success in East Asia: Understanding the meaning, value, and use of shadow education by East Asian students (pp. 234–255). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003097860-13
- Forsberg, E., Hallsén, S., Karlsson, M., Melander Bowden, H., Mikhaylova, T., & Svahn, J. (2021). Läxhjälp as shadow education in Sweden: The logic of equality in ‘a school for all’. ECNU Review of Education, 4(3), 476–493. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/2096531120966334
- George, C. (1992, April 4). Time to come out of the shadows. Straits Times, 28.
- Gravesen, D. T., & Mikkelsen, S. H. (2021). ‘It’s not about the grades!’: On shadow education in Denmark and how parents wish to help their children get ahead. International Journal for Research on Extended Education, 9(2), 268–279. https://doi.org/10.3224/ijree.v9i2.03
- Guill, K., Lüdtke, O., & Köller, O. (2020). Assessing the instructional quality of private tutoring and its effects on student outcomes: Analyses from the German National Educational Panel Study. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 282–300. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12281
- Guill, K., Ömeroğulları, M., & Kőller, O. (2022). Intensity and content of private tutoring lessons during German secondary schooling: Effects on students’ grades and test achievement. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 37, 1093–1114. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-021-00581-x
- Guo, Y., Chen, Q., Zhai, S., & Pei, C. (2020). Does private tutoring improve student learning in China? Evidence from the China Education Panel Survey. Asia and Pacific Policy Studies, 7, 322–343. https://doi.org/10.1002/app5.310
- Gupta, A. (2022). A ‘shadow education’ timescape: An empirical investigation of the temporal arrangements of private tutoring vis-à-vis formal schooling in India. British Journal of Educational Studies, 70(6), 771–787. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2021.2024137
- Hajar, A., & Karakus, M. (2022). A bibliometric mapping of shadow education research: Achievements, limitations, and the future. Asia Pacific Education Review, 23, 341–359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-022-09759-4
- Hawrot, A. (2022). Do school-related factors affect private tutoring attendance? Predictors of private tutoring in maths and German among German tenth-graders. Research Papers in Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2022.2089209
- Hemachandra, H. L. (1982). The growing phenomena of tuition classes: The perceived reasons and some latent social factors. Sri Lanka Journal of Social Sciences, 5(2), 39–69.
- Inter-Agency Commission. (1990). World conference on education for all: Final report. United Nations. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000097551?posInSet=10&queryId=29bd991b-e0d0-4890-beef-18d2b89fde81
- Javadi, Y., & Kazemirad, F. (2020). Worldwide shadow education epidemic and its move toward shadow curriculum. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 11(2), 212–220. http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/jltr.1102.09
- Joynathsing, M., Mansoor, M., Nababsing, V., Pochun, M., & Selwyn, P. (1988). The private costs of education in Mauritius. School of Administration, University of Mauritius.
- Junaidi, S. (1977). Empirical study of private tutoring in Saudi Arabia, summarised in Saudi Arabia, Ministry of Education (1978): Introducing some educational documents. Journal of Educational Documentation, 15, 86–104. تعريفبوثائقتربوية [in Arabic].
- Jung, C. G. (1958). Psychology and religion: West and east. Pantheon Books.
- Kany, N. (2021). The rise of private tutoring in Denmark: An entrepreneur’s perspectives and experiences. ECNU Review of Education, 4(3), 630–639. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/20965311211038560
- Liu, J., & Bray, M. (2022). Responsibilised parents and shadow education: Managing the precarious environment in China’. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 43(6), 878–897. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2022.2072810
- Luo, J., & Chan, C. K. Y. (2022). Influences of shadow education on the ecology of education: A review of the literature. Educational Research Review, 36(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100450
- Marimuthu, T., Singh, J. S., Ahmad, K., Lim, H. K., Mukherjee, H., Osman, S., Chelliah, T., Sharma, J. R., Salleh, N. M., Yong, L., Lim, T. L., Sukumaran, S., Thong, L. K., & Jamaluddin, W. (1991). Extra-school instruction, social equity and educational quality [in Malaysia]. International Development Research Centre.
- Petsiotis, K. (2022). Thirty-one and counting in the shadow: A teacher’s autoethnography. Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning, 2(3), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.21428/8c225f6e.94efbb46
- Popa, S. (2007). Defensible spaces: Ideologies of professionalism and teachers’ work in the Romanian private tutoring system [PhD dissertation]. University of Pennsylvania.
- Qatar, Ministry of Education and Higher Education. (2020). Annual statistics of education in the State of Qatar 2017–2018.
- Ren, P., Dou, Z., Wang, X., Li, S., & Wan, L. (2022). Think twice before seeking private supplementary tutoring in mathematics: A data set from China questioned its effectiveness. The Asia-Pacific Educational Researcher. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-022-00664-3
- Roche, S. (2014). Who’s learning whose learning? How internationalisation and pressure to perform are transforming education and learning. International Review of Education, 60, 597–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-015-9481-1
- Runte-Geidel, A. (2013). La incidencia de las clases particulares en España a través de los datos de PISA [The incidence of private tuition in Spain through the PISA data]. Revista Española de Educación Comparada, 21, 249–282. https://revistas.uned.es/index.php/REEC/article/view/7622
- Stevenson, D. L., & Baker, D. P. (1992). Shadow education and allocation in formal schooling: Transition to university in Japan. American Journal of Sociology, 97(6), 1639–1657. https://doi.org/10.1086/229942
- Subedi, K. R. (2018). Shadow education: A role of private tutoring in learning. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 1(2), 29–42. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED591992.pdf
- Suneja, V., & Baga, S. (2021). Examining the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on online education: Reviewing the Indian schooling system based on the perspective of major Indian E-tutoring platforms. Vision: The Journal of Business Perspective, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1177/09722629211029011
- Thomas, R. M. (Ed.). (1990). International comparative education: Practices, issues and prospects. Pergamon Press.
- Thomas, R. M. (1992). Comparing theories of child development (3rd ed.). Wadsworth.
- Tsai, D. H. T. (2018). Managing a franchise system: A study of a mission-driven organization [Thesis for doctor of business administration]. University of Liverpool.
- Ukai, N. (1994). The Kumon approach to teaching and learning. Journal of Japanese Studies, 20(1), 87–113. https://doi.org/10.2307/132785
- UNESCO. (2000). The Dakar framework for action – Education for all: Meeting our collective commitments. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121147?posInSet=9&queryId=9532ca31-0873-4d6a-811b-d0bc11078507 [Español: Marco de Acción de Dakar: Educación para Todos: cumplir nuestros compromisos comunes.] https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000121147_spa
- UNESCO. (2015). Education for all 2000-2015: Achievements and challenges. https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/report/2015/education-all-2000-2015-achievements-and-challenges [Español: La Educación para Todos, 2000-2015: logros y desafíos. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000232435]
- UNESCO. (2017). Unpacking sustainable development goal 4: Education 2030. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000246300 [Español: Desglosar el Objetivo de Desarrollo Sostenible 4: Educación 2030, guía. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000246300_spa]
- Yung, K. W. H. (2022). Problematising students’ preference for video-recorded classes in shadow education. Educational Studies, 48(5), 719–726. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2020.1814697
- Yung, K. W. H., & Yuan, R. (2020). ‘The most popular star-tutor of English’: Discursive construction of tutor identities in shadow education. Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education, 41(1), 153–168. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01596306.2018.1488241?journalCode=cdis20
- Zhang, E., & Liu, Y. (2022). Effects of private tutoring intervention on students’ academic achievement: A systematic review based on a three-level meta-analysis model and robust variance estimation method. International Journal of Educational Research, 112, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2022.101949
- Zhang, W. (2020). Shadow education in the service of tiger parenting: Strategies used by middle-class families in China. European Journal of Education, 55(3), 388–404. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12414
- Zhang, W. (2021). Non-state actors in education: The nature, dynamics and regulatory implications of private supplementary tutoring. UNESCO. https://gem-report-2021.unesco.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/03-Wei.pdf
- Zhang, W. (2023). Taming the wild horse of shadow education: The global expansion of private tutoring and regulatory responses. Routledge. https://www.routledge.com/Taming-the-Wild-Horse-of-Shadow-Education-The-Global-Expansion-of-Private/Zhang/p/book/9781032331553
- Zhang, W., & Bray, M. (2017). Micro-neoliberalism in China: Public-private interactions at the confluence of mainstream and shadow education. Journal of Education Policy, 32(1), 63–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680939.2016.1219769
- Zhang, W., & Bray, M. (2020). Comparative research on shadow education: Achievements, challenges, and the agenda ahead. European Journal of Education, 55(3), 322–341. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12413