References
- Allcott, H., and M. Gentzkow. 2017. “Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election.” Journal of Economic Perspectives 31 (2): 211–36. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.2.211.
- Bakir, V., and A. McStay. 2017. “Fake News and the Economy of Emotions: Problems, Causes, Solutions.” Digital Journalism 6 (2): 154–75. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.1345645.
- BBC. 2017. “Kenya Election: Fake CNN and BBC News Reports Circulate.” BBC News, July 29, 2017. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-40762796.
- Benkler, Y., R. Faris, H. Roberts, and E. Zuckerman. 2017. “Study: Breitbart-Led Right-Wing Media Ecosystem Altered Broader Media Agenda.” Columbia Journal Review 3.
- Berinsky, A. 2017. “Rumors and Health Care Reform: Experiments in Political Misinformation.” The British Journal of Political Science 47 (2): 241–62.
- BAKE (Bloggers Association of Kenya). 2018. State of the Internet in Kenya 2017, February 2018. https://www.ifree.co.ke/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/State-of-the-Internet-in-Kenya-report-2017.pdf.
- Bode, L., and A. Vraga. 2015. “In Related News, That Was Wrong: The Correction of Misinformation through Related Stories Functionality in Social Media.” Journal of Communication 65 (4): 619–38. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcom.12166.
- Borel, B. 2017. “Fact-Checking Won’t Save Us from Fake News.” Accessed November 5, 2018. https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/fact-checking-wont-save-us-from-fake-news/.
- Bullock, J. 2007. “Experiments on Partisanship and Public Opinion: Party Cues, False Beliefs, and Bayesian Updating.” PhD diss., Stanford University.
- Chesney, R., and D. Citron. 2018. “Deepfakes and the New Disinformation War. The Coming Age of Post-Truth Geopolitics.” Foreign Affairs. Accessed January 6, 2019. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/world/2018-12-11/deepfakes-and-new-disinformation-war.
- Cobb, M. D., B. Nyhan, and J. Reifler. 2013. “Beliefs Don’t Always Persevere: How Political Figures Are Punished When Positive Information about Them Is Discredited” Political Psychology 34 (3): 307–26.
- Communications Authority of Kenya. 2017. Third Quarter Sector Statistics Report for the Financial Year 2016/2017 (January–March 2017).
- Communications Authority of Kenya. 2018. First Quarter Sector Statistics Report for the Financial Year 2018/2019 (July–September 2018). Accessed January 15, 2019. https://ca.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Sector-Statistics-Report-Q1-2018-2019.pdf.
- Communications Authority of Kenya. 2018. Fourth Quarter Sector Statistics Report for The Financial Year 2017/2018 (April-June 2018).
- Communications Authority of Kenya. 2019. Fourth Quarter Sector Statistics Report for The Financial Year 2018/2019 (April-June 2019).
- Cunha, E., G. Magno, J, Caetano, D. Teixeira, and V. Almeida. 2018. “Fake News as We Feel It: Perception and Conceptualization of the Term ‘Fake News’ in the Media.” In Social Informatics, edited by S. Staab, O. Koltsova, D. I. Ignatov, 151–66. Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01129-1_10.
- Dahir, A. L. 2017a. “Fake News is Already Disrupting Kenya’s High-Stakes Election Campaign.” Accessed October 10, 2017. https://qz.com/1011989/fake-news-and-misinformation-are-upstaging-kenyas-upcoming-high-stakes-election/.
- Dahir, A. L. 2017b. “Facebook Has Joined the Battle to Combat Fake News in Kenya.” Accessed November 5, 2017. https://qz.com/1044573/facebook-and-whatsapp-introduce-fake-news-tool-ahead-of-kenya-elections/.
- de Benedictis-Kessner, J., M. A. Baum, A. J. Berinsky, and T. Yamamoto. 2017. “Persuading the Enemy: Estimating the Persuasive Effects of Partisan Media with the Preference- Incorporating Choice and Assignment Design.” Paper presented at the 2017 Southern Political Science Association Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA.
- Dixon, R. 2017. “Horrifying Images on Social Media Fuel Tension after Kenya’s Disputed Election, But Not All Are Real.” Los Angeles Times, August 14, 2017. http://www.latimes.com/world/africa/la-fg-kenya-election-social-media-20170814-story.html.
- Fallis, D. 2015. “What Is Disinformation?” Library Trends 63 (3): 401–26. https://doi.org/10.1353/lib.2015.0014.
- Flynn, D. J., B. Nyhan, and J. Reifler. 2017. “The Nature and Origins of Misperceptions: Understanding False and Unsupported Beliefs about Politics.” Advances in Political Psychology 38 (S1): 127–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12394.
- Fridkin, K., P. Kenney, and A. Wintersieck. 2015. “Liar, Liar, Pants on Fire: How Fact- Checking Influences Reactions to Negative Advertising.” Political Communication 32 (1): 127–51.
- Gelfert, A. 2018. “Fake News: A Definition.” Informal Logic 38 (1): 84–117. https://doi.org/10.22329/il.v38i1.5068.
- Gemeda, B. T., and D. Thakur. 2017. “Mobile Data Plans in Kenya: Quantifying Women's Access to the Digital World.” Accessed July 4, 2019. https://1e8q3q16vyc81g8l3h3md6q5f5e-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp- content/uploads/2017/08/Mobile-Data-Plans-In-Kenya_Womens-Digital-Access.pdf.
- GeoPoll and Portland Communications. 2017. “The Reality of Fake News in Kenya.” Accessed November 5, 2017. https://portland-communications.com/publications/reality-fake-news-kenya/.
- Government of Kenya. 2008. Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Post-Election Violence (CIPEV). Nairobi: Government Printers.
- Grimmelman, J. 2018. “The Platform Is the Message.” Georgetown Law Technology Review 2 (2): 217–33. https://doi.org/10.31228/osf.io/x47pf.
- Horning, B., and B. Storrs. 2017 “Faking the News.” Accessed November 5, 2017. http://now.tufts.edu/articles/faking-news.
- Kamau-Rutenberg, W. 2009. “Watu Wazima: A Gender Analysis of Forced Male Circumcisions during Kenya’s Post-Election Violence.” Wajibu 24 (3): 3–5.
- Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. 2018. Kenya Integrated Household Budget Survey (KIHBS), April 2018.
- Keter, G. 2017. “Uhuru Hires Data Firm behind Trump, Brexit Victories.” Accessed March 13, 2020. https://www.the-star.co.ke/amp/news/2017-05-09-uhuru-hires-data-firm-behind-trump-brexit-victories/.
- Kibet, A., and S. Ward. 2018. “Socially Networked Heterogeneity: The Influence of WhatsApp as a Social Networking Site on Polarisation in Kenya.” African Journalism Studies 39 (4): 42–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/23743670.2018.1537979.
- Kihato, C. W. 2015. “Go Back and Tell Them Who the Real Men Are!” Journal of Conflict and Violence 9 (1): 13–24.
- Kimari, B. 2017. “Kenya Election Violence and the Police Response.” Accessed March 29, 2019. https://www.ids.ac.uk/opinions/kenya-election-violence-and-the-police-response/.
- Klein, D. O., and J. R. Wueller. 2017. “Fake News: A Legal Perspective.” Journal of Internet Law 20 (10): 5–13.
- Lazer, D., M. Baum, N. Grinberg, L. Friedland, K. Joseph, W. Hobbs, and C. Mattson. 2017. “Combating Fake News: An Agenda for Research and Action.” Report of Conference, Harvard Law School, February 17–18, 2017.
- Lazer, D. 2015. “The Rise of the Social Algorithm.” Science 348 (6239): 1090–91. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aab1422.
- Levy, N. 2017. “The Bad News about Fake News.” Social Epistemology Review and Reply Collective 6 (8): 20–36.
- Lilleker, D. G. 2017. “Evidence to the Culture, Media and Sport Committee ‘Fake News’ Inquiry.” Presented by the Faculty for Media & Communication, Bournemouth University.
- Miller, N. 2017. “The Tyranny of Numbers on Social Media during Kenya’s 2017 Elections.” Accessed October 17, 2018. http://blogs.lse.ac.uk/africaatlse/2017/09/04/the-tyranny-of-numbers-on-social-media-during-kenyas-2017-elections/.
- Mutahi, P., and B. Kimari. 2017. “The Impact of Social Media and Digital Technology on Electoral Violence in Kenya.” IDS Working Paper 493. Institute of Development Studies.
- Mutahi, P., and M. Ruteere. 2019. “Violence, Security and the Policing of Kenya’s 2017 Elections.” Journal of Eastern Africa Studies 13 (2): 253–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2019.1592328.
- National Cohesion and Integration Commission and Communications Authority of Kenya. 2017. Guidelines on Prevention of Dissemination of Undesirable Bulk and Premium Rate Political Messages and Political Social Media Content Via Electronic Communications Networks July 2017. Nairobi: Communications Authority of Kenya.
- Ngirachu, J. 2017. “Hard Tackle in Busia Politics as Fake News Used to Woo Voters— VIDEO.” Accessed April 13, 2017. http://www.nation.co.ke/news/politics/Busia-fake-news/1064-3888294-format-xhtml-4h8gle/index.html.
- Ngugi, B. 2017. “Safaricom Raises Red Flag on Misleading Fake News by Unregulated Bloggers.” Business Daily, October 5, 2017. http://www.businessdailyafrica.com/corporate/companies/Safaricom-raises-red-flag-fake-news/4003102-4127458-v6m1v8/index.html.
- Nyhan, B., and J. Reifler. 2010. “When Corrections Fail: The Persistence of Political Misperceptions.” Political Behavior 32 (2): 303–30.
- Ogola, G. 2017. “Africa Has a Long History of Fake News after Years of Living with Non-Truth.” The Conversation, February 27, 2017. https://theconversation.com/africa-has-a-long-history-of-fake-news-after-years-of-living-with-non-truth-73332.
- Okuoro, S. 2017. “NASA Files Petition Challenging Uhuru’s Win.” Standard Digital, August 18, 2017. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001251827/nasa-files-petition-challenging-uhuru-s-win.
- Omanga, D. 2017. “Social Media, Community Policing and the ‘Digitisation’ of Public Participation in Kenya.” Accessed November 5, 2017. http://life-peace.org/hab/social-media-community-policing-andthe-digitisation-of-public-participation-in-kenya/.
- Omanga, D. 2019. “WhatsApp as ‘Digital Publics’: The ‘Nakuru Analysts’ and the Evolution of Participation in County Governance in Kenya.” Journal of Eastern African Studies 13 (1): 175–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/17531055.2018.1548211.
- Odipo Dev. 2017. “3 Things We Discovered from 3 Months of Investigating Fake News in Kenya.” Medium, July 12, 2017. https://medium.com/@OdipoDev/3-things-we- discovered-from-3-months-of-investigating-fake-news-in-kenya-dfaa6f4e1857.
- Oremus, W. 2017. “Facebook has Stopped Saying ‘Fake News.’” Slate, August 8, 2017. https://slate.com/technology/2017/08/facebook-has-stopped-saying-fake-news-is-false-news-any-better.html.
- Orimba, R. 2017. “The Truth about the Man Who Was ‘Circumcised by Nairobi Business Community.’” Pulse Live, October 16, 2017. https://www.pulselive.co.ke/news/local/fake-news-the-truth-about-the-man-who-was-circumcised-by-nairobi-business- community/0vpwdcd.
- Ossome, M. R. A. 2015. “States of Violence: Structural Dynamics of Gendered, Ethnicized and Sexualized Violence in Kenya’s Democratic Transitions.” PhD diss., University of the Witwatersrand.
- Otieno, J. 2017. “‘I Was Here in 2007, I know Mungiki’: Mathare, Kibera Residents Speak Out.” The Star, August 14, 2017. https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2017/08/14/i-was-here-in-2007-i-know-mungiki-mathare-kibera-residents-speak-out_c1616653.
- Oywa, J. 2017. “Kenyans Fall Victim to Fake News on Violence.” The Standard, August 14, 2017. https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2001251339/kenyans-fall-victim-to-fakenews-on-violence.
- Pasternack, A. 2017. “Trump’s Big-Data Gurus Worked on the Kenyan Election, Amid Concerns over Fake News and Hacking Allegations.” Fast Company. https://www.fastcompany.com/40450037/trumps-big-data-firm-worked-on-the-kenyan-election-amid-concerns-over-fake-news-and-hacking-allegations.
- Persily, N. 2017. “The 2016 U.S. Election: Can Democracy Survive the Internet?” Journal of Democracy 28 (2): 63–76. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2017.0025.
- Ribeiro, M. H., P. H. Calais, V. A. F. Almeida, and W. Meira Jr. 2017. “‘Everything I Disagree With is #FakeNews’: Correlating Political Polarization and Spread of Misinformation.” Paper presented at KDD 2017 Data Science + Journalism (DS+J) Workshop, Halifax, Canada, August 13–17, 2017.
- Rini, R. 2017. “Fake News and Partisan Epistemology.” Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 27 (2): E43–E64. https://doi.org/10.1353/ken.2017.0025.
- Root Report. 2017. “6 FREE Fake News Generator to Prank Your Friends.” Root Report, May 19, 2018. https://www.rootreport.com/fake-news-generator.
- Safaricom. 2017. “Leaving No One Behind. Sustainability Report 2017.” Accessed October 19, 2017. https://www.safaricom.co.ke/sustainabilityreport_2017/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Safaricom_2017.pdf.
- Sambuli, N. 2017. “How Kenya Became the Latest Victim of ‘Fake News.’” Al Jazeera, August 17, 2017. http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2017/08/kenya-latest-victim-fake-news-170816121455181.html.
- Sevenzo, F. 2017. “Kenya Election: Fake CNN, BBC Reports Target Voters.” CNN News Edition, August 1, 2017. http://edition.cnn.com/2017/07/31/africa/kenya-election-fake-news/index.html.
- Shandwick, W., P. Tate, and KRC Research 2017. “A Real Plague: Fake News.” Accessed October 13, 2017. http://www.webershandwick.com/uploads/news/files/A_Real_Plague_Fake_News.pdf.
- Social Media Writings. 2018. “Why Is It Unhelpful to Talk about Fake News?” Accessed July 3, 2019. https://medium.com/social-media-writings/why-is-it-unhelpful-to-talk-about-fake-news-969e74db871a.
- Star Reporter. 2017. “Police Probe Attack Claims in Mathare, Kibera, and Lucky Summer.” The Star, August 14, 2017. https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2017/08/14/police-probe- attack-claims-in-mathare-kibera-and-lucky-summer_c1615991.
- Swire, B., A. J. Berinsky, S. Lewandowsky, and U. K. H. Ecker. 2017. “Processing Political Misinformation: Comprehending the Trump Phenomenon.” Royal Society Open Science 4 (3): 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.160802.
- Tandoc Jr., E. C., Z. W. Lim, and R. Ling. 2017. “Defining ‘Fake News’: A Typology of Scholarly Definitions.” Digital Journalism 5 (7): 1–17.
- Thorson, E. 2015. “Belief Echoes: The Persistent Effects of Corrected Misinformation.” Political Communication 33 (3): 460–80.
- Tucker et al. 2018. “Social Media, Political Polarization, and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific Literature.” Prepared for Hewlett Foundation. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3144139.
- Una Hakika. 2017. “Rumour. October 26, 2017.” Accessed November 5, 2017. https://www.unahakika.org/rumour/XnDx3n/kikuyus-living-in-luckysummer-lakisama- were-not-allowed-to-vote.
- Wanjala, E. 2017. “Red Cross Alarmed by Prank Calls on Election.” The Star, August 14, 2017. https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2017/08/14/red-cross-alarmed-by-prank-calls-on-election-violence_c1616411.
- Wardle, C. 2017. “Fake News. It’s Complicated.” First Draft, February 16, 2017. https://medium.com/1st-draft/fake-news-its-complicated-d0f773766c79.
- Zhang, D., L. Zhou, J. L. Kehoe, and I. Y. Kilic. 2016. “What Online Reviewer Behaviors Really Matter? Effects of Verbal and Nonverbal Behaviors on Detection of Fake Online Review.” Journal of Management Information Systems 33 (2): 465–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2016.1205907.