Gender Representation in Rwandan Music Videos

References

• Andsager, J. L., and K. Roe. 1999. “Country Music Video in Country’s Year of the Woman.” Journal of Communication 49 (1): 69–82. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1999.tb02782.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aubrey, J. S., and C. Frisby. 2011. “Sexual Objectification in Music Videos: A Content Analysis Comparing Gender and Genre.” Mass Communication and Society 14 (4): 475–501. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2010.513468.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. 2009. “Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication.” In Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research, edited by J. Bryant and M. B. Oliver, 94–124. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Bartky, S. L. 1990. Femininity and Domination: Studies in the Phenomenology of Oppression. New York: Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Baxter, B., C. De Riemer, A. Landini, L. Leslie, and M. W. Singletary. 1985. “A Content Analysis of Music Videos.” Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 29 (3): 333–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838158509386589.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bayisenge, J. 2009. “Access to Paid Work and Women’s Empowerment in Rwanda.” Master’s diss., National University of Rwanda.
   Google Scholar
• Bazzini, D. G., W. D. McIntosh, S. M. Smith, S. Cook, and C. Harris. 1997. “The Aging Woman in Popular Film: Underrepresented, Unattractive, Unfriendly, and Unintelligent.” Sex Roles 36 (7–8): 531–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02766689.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bell, B. T., R. Lawton, and H. Dittmar. 2007. “The Impact of Thin Models in Music Videos on Adolescent Girls’ Body Dissatisfaction.” Body Image 4 (2): 137–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.02.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Caplan, R. E. 1985. “Violent Program Content in Music Video.” Journalism Quarterly 62 (1): 144–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/107769908506200125.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Conrad, K., T. Dixon, and Y. Zhang. 2009. “Controversial Rap Themes, Gender Portrayals and Skin Tone Distortion: A Content Analysis of Rap Music Videos.” Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 53 (1): 134–56. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838150802643795.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doan, L. A. 2010. “Rwandan Women and the 1994 Genocide: The Effect on Their Social and Political Roles.” Master’s diss., Georgetown University. Accessed August 3, 2022. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8341/84bab2ccd689dd6d682bc01f0a1be22e2bea.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• The East African. 2016. “Rwanda Top in Internet Access But Cost, Devices a Hindrance.” April 22, 2016. Accessed August 3, 2022. http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/rwanda/Business/Rwanda-top-in-Internet-access-but-cost-and-devices-a-hindrance-/1433224-3171806-3l04v4/index.html.
   Google Scholar
• Eisend, M. 2010. “A Meta-Analysis of Gender Roles in Advertising.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 38 (4): 418–40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-009-0181-x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ey, L.-A., and E. McInnes. 2015. “Sexualised Music Videos Broadcast on Australian Free-to-Air Television in Child-Friendly Time Periods.” Children Australia 40 (1): 58–68. https://doi.org/10.1017/cha.2014.39.
   Google Scholar
• Fredrickson, B. L., and T.-A. Roberts. 1997. “Objectification Theory: Toward Understanding Women’s Lived Experiences and Mental Health Risks.” Psychology of Women Quarterly 21 (2): 173–206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frisby, C., and J. S. Aubrey. 2012. “Race and Genre in the Use of Sexual Objectification in Female Artists’ Music Videos.” Howard Journal of Communications 23 (1): 66–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/10646175.2012.641880.
   Google Scholar
• Furnham, A., and S. Paltzer. 2010. “The Portrayal of Men and Women in Television Advertisements: An Updated Review of 30 Studies Published since 2000.” Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 51 (3): 216–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2009.00772.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerbner, G. 1998. “Cultivation Analysis: An Overview.” Mass Communication and Society 1 (3–4): 175–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.1998.9677855.
   Google Scholar
• Goffman, E. 1979. Gender Advertisements. New York: Harper & Row.
   Google Scholar
• Inter-Parliamentary Union. 2017. “Women in National Parliaments.” Accessed November 2017. http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm.
   Google Scholar
• Isaksson, A. S. 2015. “Unequal Property Rights: A Study on Land Rights Inequalities in Rwanda.” Oxford Development Studies 43 (1): 60–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600818.2014.955466.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kalof, L. 1999. “The Effects of Gender and Music Video Imagery on Sexual Attitudes.” Journal of Social Psychology 139 (3): 378–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224549909598393.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karsay, K., J. Matthes, L. Buchsteiner, and V. Grosser. 2019. “Increasingly Sexy? Sexuality and Sexual Objectification in Popular Music Videos, 1995–2016.” Psychology of Popular Media Culture 8 (4): 346–57. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000221.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kelly, D. M., and D. H. Currie. 2021. “Beyond Stereotype Analysis in Critical Media Literacy: Case Study of Reading and Writing Gender in Pop Music Videos.” Gender and Education 33 (6): 676–91. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2020.1831443.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• King, K., R. A. Laake, and A. Bernard. 2006. “Do the Depictions of Sexual Attire and Sexual Behavior in Music Videos Differ Based on Video Network and Character Gender?” American Journal of Health Education 37 (3): 146–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/19325037.2006.10598894.
   Google Scholar
• Kistler, M. E., and M. J. Lee. 2009. “Does Exposure to Sexual Hip-Hop Music Videos Influence the Sexual Attitudes of College Students?” Mass Communication and Society 13 (1): 67–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205430902865336.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauzen, M. M., and D. M. Dozier. 1999. “Making a Difference in Prime Time: Women on Screen and Behind the Scenes in the 1995–96 Television Season.” Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 43 (1): 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838159909364471.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lauzen, M. M., and D. M. Dozier. 2005. “Maintaining the Double Standard: Portrayals of Age and Gender in Popular Films.” Sex Roles 52 (7–8): 437–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-3710-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matthes, J., M. Prieler, and K. Adam. 2016. “Gender-Role Portrayals in Television Advertising Across the Globe.” Sex Roles 75 (7): 314–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0617-y.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ministry of Justice. 2016. “Law Governing Matrimonial Regimes, Donations and Successions.” Government of Rwanda, Kigali.
   Google Scholar
• Mischner, I. H. S, H. T. van Schie, D. H. J. Wigboldus, R. B. van Baaren, and R. C. M. E. Engels. 2013. “Thinking Big: The Effect of Sexually Objectifying Music Videos on Bodily Self-Perception in Young Women.” Body Image 10 (1): 26–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2012.08.004.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mishra, S. 2021. “Chapter 3: Misogyny and Erotic Pleasure in Bollywood’s ‘Item Numbers’.” In Misogyny, Toxic Masculinity, and Heteronormativity in Post-2000 Popular Music, edited by G. Fosbraey and N. Puckey, 55–72. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65189-3_4.
   Google Scholar
• Morgan, T. N., C. A. Hampton, S. Davenport, E. Young, D. M. Badzinski, K. B. Richardson, and R. H. Woods. 2012. “Sacred Symbols with a Secular Beat? A Content Analysis of Religious and Sexual Imagery in Modern Rock, Hip Hop, Christian, and Country Music Videos.” Journal of Religion and Popular Culture 24 (3): 432–48. https://doi.org/10.3138/jrpc.24.3.432.
   Google Scholar
• Mulgrew, K. E., D. Volcevski-Kostas, and P. G. Rendell. 2014. “The Effect of Music Video Clips on Adolescent Boys’ Body Image, Mood, and Schema Activation.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 43 (1): 92–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9932-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mulvey, L. 1975. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.” Screen 16 (3): 6–18. https://doi.org/10.1093/screen/16.3.6.
   Google Scholar
• Mumporeze, N., and M. Prieler. 2017. “Gender Digital Divide in Rwanda: A Qualitative Analysis of Socioeconomic Factors.” Telematics and Informatics 34 (7): 1285–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2017.05.014.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neuendorf, K. A. 2011. “Content Analysis: A Methodological Primer for Gender Research.” Sex Roles 64 (3–4): 276–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-010-9893-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perreault, W. D., and L. E. Leigh. 1989. “Reliability of Nominal Data Based on Qualitative Judgments.” Journal of Marketing Research 26 (2): 135–48. https://doi.org/10.2307/3172601.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riffe, D., S. Lacy, and F. G. Fico. 2014. Analyzing Media Messages: Using Quantitative Content Analysis in Research. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203551691.
   Google Scholar
• Robillard, A. 2012. “Music Videos and Sexual Risk in African American Adolescent Girls: Gender, Power and the Need for Media Literacy.” American Journal of Health Education 43 (2): 93–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/19325037.2012.10599224.
   Google Scholar
• Seidman, S. A. 1992. “Profile: An Investigation of Sex-Role Stereotyping in Music Videos.” Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 36 (2): 209–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838159209364168.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seidman, S. A. 1999. “Revisiting Sex-Roles Stereotyping in MTV Videos.” International Journal of Instructional Media 26 (1): 11–22.
   Google Scholar
• Sherman, B., and J. Dominick. 1986. “Violence and Sex in Music Videos: TV and Rock ‘n’ Roll.” Journal of Communication 36 (1): 79–93. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1986.tb03040.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shyaka, A. 2019. “Queen Cha Recalls an Incident Which Almost Made Her Quit Music”. KT Press, April 3, 2019. Accessed August 3, 2022. https://ktpress.rw/2019/04/queen-cha-recalls-an-incident-which-almost-made-her-quit-music/.
   Google Scholar
• Slatewala, Z. Z. 2019. “Objectification of Women in Bollywood Item Numbers.” Master’s diss., University of South Florida. Accessed August 3, 2022. https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/etd/7948/.
   Google Scholar
• Sommers-Flanagan, R., J. Sommers-Flanagan, and B. Davis. 1993. “What’s Happening on Music Television? A Gender Role Content Analysis.” Sex Roles 28 (11–12): 745–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00289991.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• UN DESA (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs). 2019. “Profiles of Ageing 2019.” Accessed August 6, 2022. https://population.un.org/ProfilesOfAgeing2019/index.html.
   Google Scholar
• UN Women. 2016. “Global Database on Violence against Women: Rwanda.” Accessed August 3, 2022. https://evaw-global-database.unwomen.org/en/countries/africa/rwanda?formofviolence=b51b5bac425b470883736a3245b7cbe6#1.
   Google Scholar
• UN Women. 2018. “Revisiting Rwanda Five Years after Record-Breaking Parliamentary Elections.” August 13, 2018. Accessed August 3, 2022. https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2018/8/feature-rwanda-women-in-parliament.
   Google Scholar
• Uwayisaba, F. 2019. “Gender-Based Violence against Men and Its Socioeconomic Effects on Household in Rwanda: Case Study of Kicukiro District, Gahanga Sector.” Master’s diss., University of Rwanda. Accessed August 3, 2022. http://dr.ur.ac.rw/handle/123456789/884.
   Google Scholar
• WEF (World Economic Forum). 2018. “The Global Gender Gap Report 2018.” Geneva: WEF. Accessed August 3, 2022. http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GGGR_2018.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• White, T. R. 2013. “Missy ‘Misdemeanor’ Elliott and Nicki Minaj: Fashionistin’ Black Female Sexuality in Hip-Hop Culture–Girl Power or Overpowered?” Journal of Black Studies 44 (6): 607–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934713497365.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilber, R. 2016. “Lessons from Rwanda: How Women Transform Governance.” Solutions, February 22, 2016. Accessed August 3, 2022. https://thesolutionsjournal.com/2016/02/22/lessons-from-rwanda-how-women-transform-governance/.
   Google Scholar
• Zhang, Y., T. Dixon, and K. Conrad. 2010. “Female Body Image as a Function of Themes in Rap Music Videos: A Content Analysis.” Sex Roles 62 (11–12): 787–97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-009-9656-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar