- McCormick , J. 1989 . The Global Environmental Movement: Reclaiming Paradise London (9;R. Grove, ‘Early Themes in African Conservation: The Cape in the Nineteenth Century’, in D. Anderson and R. Grove, eds, Conservation in Africa: People, Policies and Practice (Cambridge, 1989), 25–31
- 1976 . ‘The History of the Wildlife Society’, African Wildlife, 30, 5 (19;J.A. Pringle, The Conservationists and the Killers: The Story of Game Protection and the Wildlife Society of Southern Africa (Cape Town, 1982), 10
- Carruthers , E. J. 1926 . Archives Year Book for South African History , 58 : 150 – 77 . For more details, see, ‘Game Protection in the Transvaal 1846 to’, (Pretoria, 1995, E.J. Carruthers, The Kruger National Park: A Social and Political History (Pietermaritzburg, 1995), 47–66
- Rabie , M. A. 1976 . South African Environmental Legislation 93 – 108 . Pretoria See (for air pollution control in South Africa prior to 1976
- Rabie , M. A. , Erasmus , M. G. , Fuggle , R. F. and Rabie , M. A. 1983 . Environmental Concerns in South Africa: Technical and Legal Perspectives 37 – 8 . Cape Town eds
- McCormick . The Global Environmental Movement ix;W. Beinart and P. Coates, Environment and History: The Taming of Nature in the USA and South Africa (London, 1995), 74
- For the purposes of this article, environmentalism is seen as humankind's quest for a viable future. It is based on the recognition that human activity affects the natural environment and that securing a viable future depends on such activity being controlled in some way. Since different opinions exist on how human activity should be controlled, environmentalism includes both biocentric and antrophocentric world-views, and can argue for managerial or radical approaches to environmental issues. Environmentalism is used synonymously with the phrase ‘environmental movement’ throughout this article
- Vollgraaff , H. 1995 . Ekologisme: ‘n Alternatiewe Lewenswyse . Annals of the South African Cultural History Museum , 7 ( 1 ) Nov. : 25
- Khan , F. 1990 . 95 – 6 . ‘Contemporary South African Environmental Response: An Historical and Sociopolitical Evaluation with Particular Reference to Blacks’ (MA dissertation, University of Cape Town
- The widely used abbreviation, Wildlife Society, will be used throughout in this article to refer to the Wildlife and Environment Society of Southern Africa
- 1989 . The Weekly Mail, 6–12 Oct., 10
- Cock , J. , Cock , J. and Koch , E. 1991 . Going Green: People, Politics and the Environment in Southern Africa 1 Cape Town
- Sullivan , D. and Sullivan , R . 1977s . South African Environment 52 – 55 . 58 – 59 . Cape Town Environmental education grew tremendously in the 1970s and 1980s due to the activities of ENGOs such as the Wildlife Society (1926), the Wilderness Leadership School (1963), the Southern African Nature Foundation (1968), the South African Nature Conservation Centre (1975), the Environmental Education Association of Southern Africa (1982) and the statutory Council for the Environment (1982). The high point of the so-called environmental education drive in the 1980s was the publication of the White Paper on Environmental Education in 1989. See, for example, C.D. Schweizer, ‘Environmental and Related Interest Groups in South Africa’, vol. 1 (MSc dissertation, University of Cape Town, 1983), 82; P. Irwin, ‘15 Years On and Time for a Reflective Pause?’, Southern African Journal of Environmental Education, 17 (1997), 1–2;Departement van Omgewingsake, Witskrifoor Omgewingsopvoeding (W.P.F.-1989;Pretoria, 1989);J. Taylor, Share-Net: A Case Study of Environmental Education Resource Development in a Risk Society (Howick, 1997), 15 et seq.
- Ross , J. C. 1930s . Soil Conservation in South Africa: A Review of the Problem and Developments to Date 15 – 18 . Pretoria Particular attention was paid to soil conservation since the late with the Department of Agriculture and the National Veld Trust (1943) being the main role-players in the efforts to conserve the South African soil. For more information, see (1963, T.C. Robertson, ‘Ecology and Political Ideals’, Veldtrust (Dec. 1972), 9; R.J. van Niekerk, ‘Bewaring as Sedelike Prinsipe in die Suid-Afrikaanse Bodembenuttingsituasie: ‘n Kultuur-Filosofiese Studie’, (DPhil thesis, University of Pretoria, 1981), 55
- 1983 . Verslag van die Wetenskapskomitee van die Presidentsraad oor Demograflese Tendense in Suid-Afrika Cape Town (PR 1/1983
- Jordaan , J. , ed. 1992 . Environmental Management in South Africa 20 In their highly influential and informative book, Richard Fuggle and Andre Rabie do not even mention the report of the President's Council on demographic trends in a discussion on the reports of the President's Council that were of value to the environmental movement: see M.A. Rabie and R.F. Fuggle, ‘The Rise of Environmental Concern’, in R.F. Fuggle and M.A. Rabie, eds, Environmental Management in South Africa (Cape Town, None of the ENGOs in South Africa and the environmental-related state departments were active in efforts to reduce the South African population prior to 1988. SeeBevolkingsgroei: Ons Tydbom. Die Oplossing vir Suid-Afrika se Bevolkingsprobleem (Pretoria, 1991), 31–4, 154
- Cock . ‘Going Green’, 1; J.J. Muller, ‘A Greener South Africa? Environmentalism, Politics and the Future’, Politikon, 24, 1 (June 1997), 114–15;E. Koch, ‘Rainbow Alliances: Community Struggles around Ecological Problems’, in Cock and Koch, Going Green, 31–2
- Coleman , M. , ed. 1998 . A Crime Against Humanity: Analysing the Repression of the Apartheid State 87 – 90 . Johannesburg Human Rights Committee, ‘Banning and Restriction of Organisations’, in, ed.
- Jacobs , G. and Lukey , P. 1998 . interview in Johannesburg, 5 Mar. After these organisations were unbanned in 1990, the anti-apartheid activists in most cases continued with their involvement with the new environmentalist ENGOs
- For more details, see Human Rights Committee, ‘The Great Hunger Strike’, in Coleman, A Crime Against Humanity, 140–1;Human Rights Committee, ‘The 1989 Defiance Campaign’, in Coleman, A Crime Against Humanity, 141–5
- Kamsteeg , A. and van Dijk , E. 1990 . F. W. de Klerk: Man of the Moment 46 – 56 . Cape Town (A. Sparks, The Mind of South Africa: The Story of the Rise and Fall of Apartheid (London, 1991), 398–9. For a discussion of the initiatives of Botha, see also A.H. Marais, ‘Negotiations for a Democratic South Africa, 1985–1992’, Journal for Contemporary History, 19, 2 (Sep. 1994), 1–4
- 1990 . Debates of Parliament, 2 Feb., col. 12–8
- Jacobs , G. and Lukey , P. 1998 . interview in Johannesburg, 5 Mar.
- 1997 . Ibid.; Earthlife Africa, ‘A Completely Biased, Subjective and Unofficial History of Earthlife Africa’, <http://www.earthlife.org.za/about/about.htm>
- 1991 . Earthlife Branches existed in Cape Town, Durban, the Garden Route, Grahamstown, Johannesburg, the Natal Region, Pietermaritzburg, Pretoria and the Universities of Cape Town, Stellenbosch, Natal (Pietermaritzburg campus), Pretoria and the Witwatersrand. A branch also existed in Windhoek, Namibia. See ‘Who is Earthlife Africa?’, (July, congress special), 14–22
- 1989 . The Argus, 15 May, p. 9;Earthlife Africa, ‘Completely Biased History'W.G. Knill, Green: The Business Report (S.I., 1992), 241–2;C. Albertyn, ‘Greening South Africa’, Wood Southern Africa, 15, 7 (May 1990), 42;Earthlife Africa, ‘Statement of Belief, Earthlife (July 1990, congress special), 2
- Albertyn, ‘Greening South Africa’, 42; G. Jacobs and P. Lukey, interview in Johannesburg, 5 Mar. 1998; H. Vollgraaff, ‘Die Aard en Omvang van Omgewings- en Groenpolitiek in Suid-Afrika, met Spesiale Verwysing na die Rol van Belangegroepe in die Wes-Kaap’ (MA dissertation, University of South Africa, 1994), 117
- Jacobs , G. and Lukey , P. 1998 . interview in Johannesburg, 5 Mar.
- 1998 . Ibid.; G.J. Kotzé, interview near Riebeek Kasteel, 27 Mar.
- 1989 . No complete list of the ENGOs could be traced. The 55 new ENGOs were identified in the following sources: The Weekly Mail, 6–12 Oct., 10;Miiller, ‘A Greener South Africa?’, 117;Vollgraaff, ‘Aard en Omvang’, 108–15;Koch, ‘Rainbow Alliances’, 27; J. Ledger, ‘Biodiversity: The Basis of Life. South Africa's Endangered Species’, in Cock and Koch, Going Green, 243; E. Koch, D. Cooper and H. Coetzee, Water, Waste and Wildlife: The Politics of Ecology in South Africa (London, 1990), 1; C. Cooper, ‘People, the Environment, and Change’, South African Institute of Race Relations Spotlight, 5/94 (Oct. 1994), 9, 20, 23, 26, 33, 35, 40, 49, 54, 60, 62;The Green Pages 1991/1992: Environmental Networking and Resource Directory for Southern Africa (Johannesburg, 1991), 6 et seq.
- Schweizer . ‘Environmental and Related Interest Groups’, vol. 2, 3–59
- 1989 . The Weekly Mail, 6–12 Oct., 10;Koch, Cooper and Coetzee, Water, Waste and Wildlife, 1;The Green Pages 1991/1992, 94. See also Consumers Against Pollution Newsletter, 3, 2 (Oct. 1991), 1–12
- 1992 . 23 – 5 . The Green Pages 1991/1992, 93, 100. See also M. Stanford, ‘Poison for the People’, New Ground 7 (Autumn, Earthlife Africa (Natal Region), Living Earthlife: Natal's Vietnamese Cocktail (pamphlet, s.a.), 1–2
- 1989 . The Weekly Mail, 6–12 Oct., 10;The Green Pages 1991/1992, 27–8, 100, 104
- Ledger . ‘Biodiversity’, 243;Koch, Cooper and Coetzee, Water, Waste and Wildlife, 1;The Green Pages 1991/1992, 78;Beeld, 5 July 1990, 2
- 1990 . 8 – 11 . The Green Pages 1991/1992, 16, 23–4, 96. For more information on Trees for Africa, see, for example, J. Searll, ‘Trees for Africa’, Conserva, 5, 4 (July, J. Searll, ‘Borne vir Afrika’, Conserva, 6, 4 (July/Aug. 1991), 8–9
- Fig , D. ‘Flowers in the Desert: Community Struggles in Namaqualand’, in Cock and Koch, Going Green, 122–3;Cooper, ‘People, the Environment, and Change’, 23–4, 26–9, 49–50, 60–1
- The Green Pages 1991/1992, 81, 83, 86
- Vollgraaff . ‘Aard en Omvang’, 110–11;Cooper, ‘People, the Environment, and Change’, 54–6;H. Rukato, ‘The Group for Environmental Monitoring’, Urbanisation and Health Newsletter 28 (Mar. 1996), 99–101
- Vollgraaff . ‘Aard en Omvang’, 109;The Green Pages 1991/1992, 81
- Cooper . ‘People, the Environment, and Change’, 9–10, 20–3
- 1983 . The Green Pages 1991/1992 78, 96–7. Publications of Capra that deal with the environment include F. Capra, The Turning Point: Science, Society and the Rising Culture (London, and C. Spretnak and F. Capra, Green Politics: The Global Promise (London, 1990)
- Khan . ‘Contemporary South African Environmental Response’, 103–4;Vollgraaff, ‘Aard en Omvang’, 113–15;The Green Pages 1991/1992, 97
- 1991 . Environmental Action 10 – 14 . ‘A Green Forum for Corporate: A Conversation with Industrial Environmental Forum Chairman, Dr John Maree’, (Oct./Nov., 17; K. Ireton, ‘From SAICEM to Rio’, Environmental Action (Jan./Feb. 1992), 17
- Müller . ‘A Greener South Africa?’, 116
- 1989 . The Weekly Mail, 6–12 Oct., 10
- 1985 . The ozone layer became an international issue in when researchers discovered that 50 per cent of the ozone in the upper stratosphere over Antarctica was being destroyed annually from September to December. Researchers identified chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as being the primary cause of this depletion. For more information on the hole in the ozone layer, see G.T. Miller, Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections, and Solutions, 9th ed. (Belmont, 1996), 318–23
- Macdonald , I. 1991 . 82 – 4 . et al, ‘The Ozone Awareness Campaign’, African Wildlife, 45, 2
- 1989 . The Weekly Mail, 1–7 Sep., 7
- Ibid.
- 1989 . For the issues on which the general election was contested, see W.H. Strong, ‘Die Algemene Verkiesings van 1987 en 1989 en die Politieke Gebeure Daartussen’ (MA dissertation, University of the Orange Free State, 1993), 186–219
- 1990 . The campaign against Thor Chemicals, launched in April by ELA, the Chemical Workers Industrial Union, the residents of Fredville, farmers from the Tala Valley and Greenpeace (USA), was aimed against its (Thor Chemicals’) mercury recycling plant at Cato Ridge. The company's activities had led to the widespread mercury poisoning of soil and water in the Cato Ridge area, while some of the workers at the plant also suffered chronic mercury poisoning. For more information, see Earthlife Africa, ‘Thor Chemicals: Chronology of the Campaign against Thor Chemicals’, <http://www.earthlife.org.za/campaigns/toxic/thor.htm>, 1997; G. Coleman, ‘The Campaign against Thor Chemicals: Trade Unions and the Environment’, Critical Health 33 (Nov. 1990), 67–75
- 1990 . The highly controversial and emotive annual culling of the Cape fur seal population once again made headlines in when ELA, the Seal Action Group, the World Society for the Protection of Animals, Save our Seals, and the Front for Animal Liberation and Conservation of Nature, opposed the government's permission for the seal culling to proceed as planned. The ENGOs' activism led to an indefinite postponement of the culling of the Kleinsee seals on 17 July 1990 by the government. Beeld, 5 July 1990, 2;Beeld (Kalender), 24 July 1990, 5, Beeld, 28 July 1990, 9
- The Green Pages 1991/1992, 109;Vollgraaff, ‘Aard en Omvang’, 98–9;J. Cock, ‘Ozone-Friendly Polities’, Work in Progress 66 (May 1990), 29;Vrye Weekblad (Ecology supplement), 15 Dec. 1989, 14
- Hoogervorst , A. 1992 . The Green Party of SA… Who? . Eagle Bulletin , 3 ( 2 ) : 3 – 4 . (Vollgraaff, ‘Aard en Omvang’, 99–100
- 1989 . The Star, 28 Oct., 8
- L'Ange , J. 1985 . Femina The NP's broad policy document further promoted the integrated environmental management model, developed by the Council for the Environment between and 1989. The NP policy document on the environment as quoted by, ‘Who's the Greenest of Them All?’, (Feb. 1991), 46
- L'Ange, ‘Who's the Greenest’, 46, 48
- Strong, ‘Algemene Verkiesings’, 201
- 1989 . The Weekly Mail, 1–7 Sep., 7
- The gist of the document was that the existing environmental management system in place was ineffective, and the party proposed structural changes that would place the environment higher on the government's list of priorities. For more details, see Phia Steyn Private Document Collection-. Democratic Party, Policy Position Document—Environment
- 1989 . The Weekly Mail, 1–7 Dec., 10;Khan, ‘Contemporary South African Environmental Response’, 69–71;L'Ange, ‘Who's the Greenest’, 47
- Cameron , A. 1993 . ‘Interview with Albie Sachs’ . Earthyear , 4 Autumn : 5 – 9 . See, for example, 5–9;A. Sachs, Protecting Human Rights in a New South Africa (Cape Town, 1990), 139–48;B. Jack, ‘The Importance of Environmental Considerations for Development in a Non-Racial South Africa’, in D. Hallowes, ed., Hidden Faces: Environment, Development and Justice: South Africa and the Global Context (Pietermaritzburg, 1993), 266–72
- L'Ange, ‘Who's the Greenest’, 48;Koch, Cooper and Coetzee, Water, Waste arid Wildlife, 13
- 1992 . Dr Gomolemo Mokae, vice-president of Azapo in, as quoted by L'Ange, ‘Who's the Greenest’, 48
- Leger , J. , Moss , G. and Obery , I. 1989 . South African Review , 4 : 292 – 304 . For more details, see, for example, eds, (Johannesburg
- Feb. 1990 . Feb. , For more details, see Dolphin Whale Watch RSA Newsletter, 8, 1 (1, 5–7;Beeld, 6 July 1990, 4;Beeld, 19 Sep. 1990, 10
- Khan . ‘Contemporary South African Environmental Response’, 81;The Weekly Mail, 6–12 Oct. 1989, 10;Koch, Cooper and Coetzee, Water, Waste and Wildlife, 13
- Huntley , B. , Siegfried , R. and Sunter , C. 1989 . South African Environments into the 21st Century Cape Town These publications include (Koch, Cooper and Coetzee, Water, Waste and Wildlife; Cock and Koch, Going Green; M. Ramphele and C. McDowell, eds, Restoring the Land: Environmentand Change in Post-Apartheid South Africa (London, 1991);and J. Clarke, Back to Earth: South Africa's Environmental Challenges (Johannesburg, 1991)
- See especially Koch, Cooper and Coetzee, Water, Waste and Wildlife; Cock and Koch, Going Green; Ramphele and McDowell, Restoring the Land.
- Vollgraaff . 1990 . ‘Ekologisme’, 26. ELA's attempts were successful and the ANC included environmental rights (article 12) into their proposed bill of rights for South Africa, tabled in November. Cock, ‘Going Green’, 15–16
- Vollgraaff . ‘Aard en Omvang’, 92;Financial Mail (supplement), 4 Oct. 1991, 5
- Wynberg , R. P. 1993 . 16 – 17 . ‘Exploring the Earth Summit: Findings of the Rio United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Implications for South Africa’ (MPhil dissertation, University of Cape Town, I. van der Merwe, ‘The Summit of “92”’, Conserva, 7, 5 (Sep./Oct. 1992), 4–5
- Prinsloo , J. 1992 . ‘Earthlife Africa Conference’ . Innovation , 5 Dec. : 27 – 8 . (See Hallowes, ed., Hidden Faces, for the proceedings of the conference. See also;V. Munnik, ‘Global Village Politics and What it Means to be Green in South Africa’, New Ground 10 (Summer 1992/1993), 32–4
- Conference Resolutions’, in Hallowes, Hidden Faces, 323;Vollgraaff, ‘Aard en Omvang’, 95
- 1989 . In the Richards Bay Minerals' application for a prospecting lease in the Kingsa/Tojan lease area along the eastern shores of Lake St Lucia unleashed unprecedented protest and outrage from ENGOs in South Africa. The main reason for the campaign against possible titanium mining was the fact that the Kingsa/Tojan lease was part of the St Lucia System. The latter was designated a wetland of international importance on 2 October 1986 by the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Water Fowl Habitat (the Ramsar Convention, 1971). See, for example, ‘St Lucia: Facts and Fallacies’, Conserva, 7, 3 (May/June 1992), 8–9;A. Forbes, ‘St Lucia: A Titanium Struggle. The Case against Dune Mining’, in Rotating the Cube: Environmental Strategies/or the 1990s (Durban, 1990), 82–92
- Sep. 1990 . Environmental Action Sep. , 28 – 9 . ‘Pretoria and the Professionals’
- 1998 . Kotzé used the term ‘the greens’ to refer to all individuals and ENGOs that dared to oppose the government and to whom the environment was a political issue. G. Kotze, interview near Riebeek Kasteel, 27 Mar.
- 1990 . Jan Giliomee Private Document Collection, Habitat Council: W.S. Boshoff to G.J. Kotze, 15 Jan. (letter) and G.J. Kotze to W.S. Boshoff, 22 Jan. 1990 (letter)
- Back to Earth See, for example, Clarke, 151; P. Lukey, C. Albertyn and H. Coetzee, ‘Wasting Away: South Africa and the Global Waste Problem’, in Cock and Koch, Going Green, 170; J. Clarke, interview in Johannesburg, 5 Mar. 1998
- 1991 . 1 Verslag van die Drie Komitees van die Presidentsraad oor ‘n Nasionale Omgewingsbestuur-stelsel(PR 1/1991, Cape Town
- Ibid., passim.
- Ibid., 217–19, 224–40;J. Yeld, ‘The President's Council and Environmental Management in South Africa’, African Wildlife, 46, 1 (1992), 25
- 1991 . It was criticised, inter alia, for not exploring the idea of an independent, professionally staffed statutory body with significant policy-making authority and for downgrading the Council for the Environment (being the main policy-making body within government structures) to a professionally unequipped body. The report was also problematic because it had been drawn up by the President's Council and was consequently not acceptable to anti-apartheid organisations such as the ANC and PAC. Both organisations did not submit written or oral evidence, and did not react to its content in public after its publication in October. (No political party or anti-apartheid organisation presented written or oral evidence.) PR 1/1991, 322–30. See also ‘Pretoria and the Professionals’, 38–9;Yeld, ‘The President's Council’, 23–5
- ‘Pretoria and the Professionals’, 38
- 1991 . Annual Report of the Department of Environmental Affairs, 1989–1990 RP 29/1991, Pretoria (53, 55, 58, 61
- Ibid., 58; M. Kidd, Environmental Law: A South African Guide (Cape Town, 1997), 142; D.J. Levine and M.G. Erasmus, ‘International Environmental Law’, in Fuggle and Rabie, Environmental Management in South Africa, 169, 171
South African Historical Journal
Volume 42, 2000 - Issue 1