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ARTICLES

Uprooting, Rerooting: Culture, Religion and Community among Indentured Muslim Migrants in Colonial Natal, 1860–1911

Pages 191-222 | Published online: 14 Jan 2009

References

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  • Prakash , G. 1995 . “ ‘Introduction’ ” . In After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements Edited by: Prakash , G. 3 – 17 . Princeton in, ed., (5
  • 1890–1911 . See, for example, M.J. Tayal, ‘Indian Indentured Labour in Natal,’, Indian Economic and Social History Review, 14, 4 (1978), 419–48;and L.M. Thomson, Indian Immigration into Natal 1860–1872 (Pretoria, 1952). The exception is S. Bhana, ed., Essays on Natal's Indentured Indians (Leeds, 1990), which examines issues related to language, suicide, accommodation and resistance. While this study was invaluable in touching on wider issues, the files of the Protector, probably the richest source of primary material, were not exhaustively examined
  • Chakrabarty , D. , Schwarz , H. and Ray , S. 2000 . A Companion to Postcolonial Studies 467 – 85 . Oxford (468
  • Meer , Y. S. 1980 . Documents of Indentured Labour in Natal, 1851–1917 3 Durban
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  • 1902 . NAR, II, 1/106, Colonial Secretary to Protector, 16 May
  • 1914 . NAR, 11, 1/190, Manager, Reynolds Brothers, to Protector, 12 June
  • 1909 . NAR, II, 1/167, Protector's Minute, 9 Oct.
  • Indentured Indian Emigrants to Natal 2009: A Study Based on Ships Lists Professors Tom Bennett and Joy Brain, who are analysing the Ships lists, reported that 7874 of the 130 000 names completed were Muslims. This is an approximation as it is made up of those who listed their caste as Muslim or Mussalman and castes that are entirely Muslim, such as Pathan, Sheikh, Sayyid, Rowath, Labbai and Mappalai. This list does not include castes such as Sali which included Muslims and non-Muslims. While this list is consequently not complete it is close enough to the actual numbers to allow for analysis and discussion. S. Bhana, (New Delhi, 1991) provided an excellent overall analysis of the overall make-up of indentured Indians However, the study did not provide a specific breakdown of Muslims
  • Kale , M. and van der Veer , P. 1836–1885 . Nation and Migration: The Politics of Space in the South Asian Diaspora 73 – 92 . Philadelphia (1995, 82
  • 1902 . NAR, II, 1/109, Secretary, Crown Collieries to Secretary, Indian Immigration Trust Board, 16 June
  • Siddiqi , M. M. 1992 . “ ‘Inter-Caste Integration Among Indian Muslims’ ” . In The Social Structure of Indian Muslims Edited by: Farid , F. R. 57 – 63 . New Delhi in and MM. Siddiqi, eds, (57
  • 1901 . Census of India, Vol. 1, Part 1, pp. 543–544
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  • Misra , S. C. 1985 . Muslim Communities in Gujarat 117 New Delhi
  • Neville , H. R. 1911 . Bareilly, A Gazatteer. Being Volume XIII of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh 90 Allahabad
  • Ahmad , Z. ‘The System of Caste and the Muslims of India’, in Farid and Siddiqi, The Social Structure of Indian Muslims, 30–49, 42
  • Omer , M. ‘Conformity to Caste Traditions Against Islamic Shariah’, in Farid and Siddiqi, Social Structure of Indian Muslims, 66
  • Thurston , E. and Rangachari , K. 1909 . Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Vol. IV K-M 199 Madras
  • Ibid., 455
  • Singh , K. S. 1998 . Indian Communities: Anthropological Survey of India 3002 vol. 2 (Delhi
  • Ibid., 901
  • Ibid., 1410
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  • 1885 . NAR, II, 1/24, Protector's Minute, 5 Mar.
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  • 1910 . NAR, CSO 299/, Protector Polkinghome to Town Clerk, 11 Nov. 1909
  • Breman , J. 1989 . Taming the Coolie Beast: Plantation and the Colonial Order in Southeast Asia Delhi See, for example, (K.L. Gillion, Fiji's Indian Migrants: A History to the End of Indenture in 1920 (Melbourne, 1962);K. Hazeersingh, A History of Indians In Mauritius, 2nd ed. (London, 1975);K. Haraksingh, ‘Control and Resistance among Overseas Indian Workers: A Study of labour on Sugar Plantations of Trinidad’, in D. Dabideen and B. Samaroo, eds, India in the Caribbean (Waewick, 1987), 61–80;and B.V. Lal, D. Munro and ED. Beechert, eds, Plantation Workers: Resistance and Accommodation (Honolulu, 1993). For Natal, see M. Swan, ‘Indentured Indians: Resistance and Accommodation, 1890–1913’, in S. Bhana, ed., Essays on Indentured Indians in Natal (Leeds, 1990), 117–35
  • Bhana . Ships Lists 147
  • Ibid., 20
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  • Tayal . ‘Indian Indentured Labour’, 419–448
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  • Bhana . Ships Lists 91
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  • 1984 . NAR, II, 1/16, Protector's Minute, 22 Jan.
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  • 1910 . NAR, II, 1/177, Protector's Minute, 14 Nov.
  • 1910 . NAR, II, 1/178, J.A. Freeks to Protector, 1 Dec.
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  • 1910 . NAR, II, 1.172, Protector's Minute, 24 May
  • NAR, II, 1/177, Protector's Minute, 13 Oct.1910
  • 1912 . NAR, II, 1/182, Khoda Buccas to Protector, 2 Feb.
  • 1911 . NAR, II, 1/180, Memo. Of Information for Remittance to India, 25 Apr.
  • 1910 . NAR, II, 1/177, Memo. Of Information for Remittance to India, 26 Oct.
  • 1910 . NAR, II, 1/177, Memo. Of Information for Remittance to India, 5 Nov.
  • Carter , M. 1996 . Voices from Indenture: Experiences of Indian Migrants in the British Empire 173 London
  • 1884 . NAR, II, 1/23, 1696/84, Protector's Minute, 11 Dec.
  • 1909 . NAR, II, 1/167, 1528/09, Protector's Minute, 5 Aug.
  • 1915 . NAR, II, 1/191, Report of Protector's Visit To Plantations, 23 Sep.
  • 1909 . NAR, II, 1/175, 1682/09, Protector's Minute, 23 Aug.
  • 1912 . NAR, II, 1/187, Protector's Minute, 4 Oct.
  • 1912 . NAR, II, 1/187, Protector's Minute, 9 Dec.
  • 1901 . NAR, II, 1/102, 1450/, Protector's Minute, 19 Sep. 1901
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  • 1884 . NAR, II, Alice Sykes, Camperdown, to Protector, 5 Nov.
  • Andrews , C. F. and Pearson , W. W. 1918 . Indian Indentured Labour in Fiji 6 Madras
  • See J. Beall, ‘Women Under Indenture’, in Bhana, Essays on Indentured Indians in Natal, 89–116
  • 1884 . NAR, II, 1/19, Saliha's deposition to Protector, 7 Apr.
  • 1883 . NAR, II, 1/12, 541/83, Protector's Minute, 16 June
  • 1897 . NAR, II, 1/91, Protector's Minute, 23 Apr.
  • 1883 . NAR, U 1/16, 1071/83, Protector's Minute, 4 Nov.
  • 1882 . NAR, II, 1/11, Protector's Minute, Oct.
  • 1910 . NAR, II, 1/177, Protector's Minute, 11 Oct
  • 1912 . NAR, II, 1/181, Protector's Minute, 22 Aug.
  • 1898 . NAR, II, 1/88, Protector's Minute, 15 Mar.
  • 1912 . NAR, II, l/l87, 2458/, Karrim to Protector, 31 Aug. 1912 and Manager, Reynolds Estate to Protector, 2 Sep. 1912
  • 1878 . NAR, II, 1/5, Protector's Minute, 13 Aug.
  • 1910 . NAR, II, 1/172, Protector's Minute, 5 Mar.
  • 1894 . NAR, II, 1/182, Protector's Minute, 17 July
  • 1909 . NAR, II, 1/167, Protector's Minute, 5 Aug.
  • 1887 . NAR, II, 1/30, Protector's Minute, 18 Jan.
  • 1912 . NAR, II, Protector's Minute, 14 Mar.
  • 1909 . NAR, II, 1/179, 2234/1909, Manager, Port Natal Harbour, to Protector, 26 Nov.
  • 1909 . NAR, 1/170, 2250/, E.M. Hawksworth to Protector, 8 Nov. 1909
  • 1912 . NAR, 1/182,40/, T.G. Colebrander to Protector, 4 Feb. 1912
  • 1910 . NAR, II, 1/178, 275/, J.A. Franks to Protector, 1 Dec. 1912
  • 1910 . NAR, II, 1/172, Manager, Illovo Sugar Estate, to Protector, 15 Mar.
  • 1912 . NAR, II, 1/182, 54/12, Acting Under-Secretary to Protector, 20 May
  • 1911 . NAR, 11, 1/182, 620/, Protector's Minute, 14 Mar. 1912
  • 1872 . Report of the Coolie Commission Appointed to Inquire into the Condition of the Indian Immigrants in the Colony of Natal, August, in Meer, Documents, 1
  • 1885 . NAR, II, 1/24, 366/85, Protector's Minute, 6 Mar.
  • ‘Case against Baloomookund’, Document 39, in Meer, Documents, 112–14
  • 1912 . NAR, II, 1/188, 3319/, Baboo Saib to Protector, 25 July 1913
  • 1911 . NAR, II, 1/180, 1091/, B Sokehill, Manager, Dundee Coal Mines, to Protector, 18 Apr. 1911
  • 1912 . NAR, 1/187, Deputy Protector, Pietermaritzburg, to Protector, 4 Sep.
  • 1913 . NAR, II, 1/188, Protector to Emigration Agent, Madras, 25 July
  • 1912 . NAR, II, 1/184, 1303/, Frank Brickhill, Manager, Hull Valley Estate, Umkomaas, to Protector, 13 Aug. 1912
  • 1910 . NAR, II, 1/173, S.I. Seepye, Hindustani Interpreter, to Protector, 5 May
  • 1911 . NAR, II, 1/190, 2461/, M.O. Stanger Hospital, to Protector, 9 Nov. 1914
  • 1914 . NAR, II, 1/190, 2463/, Magistrate, Inanda Division to Protector, 10 Nov. 1914
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  • Swanson, ‘Asiatic Menace’, 421
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  • 1912 . NAR, 1/187, Deputy Protector of Immigrants to City Court, Pietermaritzburg, 1 Nov.
  • 1909 . NAR, II, 1/167, Protector's Minute, 14 July
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  • Vahed , G. 1999 . ‘Control and Repression: The Plight of Indian Hawkers and Flower Sellers in Durban, 1910–1948’ . The International Journal of African Historical Studies , 32 ( 1 ) Dec. : 19 – 48 . Coolie Commission Report 1872. See (and G. Vahed, ‘“A Public Nuisance”. The Victoria Street Squatters’ Market in Durban, 1910–1934', South African Historical Journal 40 (May 1999), 130–53
  • 1910 . NAR, II, 1/188, Correspondence Between Manager, SA Collieries, and Protector, Dec.
  • 1985 . See E.I. Sulliman, ‘A Historical Study of the Largest Mosque in the Southern Hemisphere, namely, the Juma Musjid’ (BAHons dissertation, University of Durban-Westville, and R.C. Jamal, ‘A Study of the West Street Mosque in Durban’ (BA Hons dissertation, University of Durban-Westville, 1986)
  • Bhana , S. and Brain , J. 1990 . Setting Down Roots Johannesburg See (V. Padayachee and R. Morrell, ‘Dukhawallas’, Journal of Southern African Studies;and Swan, Gandhi
  • 1912 . NAR, II, 1/182, 83/, T L Fyvie to Protector, 10 Jan. 1912
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  • 1912 . NAR, II, 1/184, 1303/, Frank Brickhill, Manager, Hull Valley Estate, Umkomaas, to Protector, 13 Aug. 1912
  • Lal , B. 1983 . 33 – 35 . ‘Girmityas: The Origins of the Fiji Indians’, Journal of Pacific History
  • 1880 . NAR, II 1/6. 1476/1880, Goolam Moideen to Colonial Secretary, 5 Mar.
  • 1880 . NAR, II 1/6. 1476/1880, Colonial Secretary to Resident Magistrates, 11 Oct.
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  • 1910 . NAR, II 1/186, 614/, Inspector to Protector, 16 Mar. 1910
  • 1887 . NAR, II 1/30, 1334/85, Protector's Minute, 18 Jan.
  • 1882 . NAR, II 1/11, 93/84, Protector's Minute, 27 Sep.
  • 1885 . Wragg Commission, in Meer, Documents, 289
  • 1885 . Wragg Commission, in Meer, Documents, 340
  • 1909 . NAR, 11, 1/167, 1408/09, Deputy Protector Dunning to Protector, 19 July
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  • Ansari , S. 1992 . Sufi Saints and State Powe: The Pirs of Sind, 1843–1947 13 Cambridge
  • Alavi , H. , Halliday , F. and Alavi , H. 1988 . State and Ideology in the Middle East and Pakistan 94 London
  • Bayly , S. 1989 . Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslim and Christians in South Indian Society 1700–1900 76 – 7 . Cambridge
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  • 1901 . NAR, II, 1/104, Moidin's deposition to Protector, 18 Dec.
  • 1984 . ‘Sunday Times Extra’, Nov.
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  • 1986 . ‘Sunday Times Extra’, 28 Sep. and 14 Feb. 1988
  • 1913 . NAR, II, 1/188, Manager to Protector, 9 Dec.
  • 1910 . NAR, Colonial Secretary's Office (CSO) 299/, Protector Polkinghome to Town Clerk, 11 Nov. 1909
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  • Legend has it that this particular form of celebration originated in India with the Shia wife of Emperor Timur at the end of the thirteenth century, who had taken a vow to visit the mausoleum of Husain annually in Iraq. When illness prevented her from doing so a replica of the mausoleum was placed before her during Muharram
  • Tassy , Garcin de . 1995 . Muslim Festivals in India and Other Essays 56 Delhi (Translated by M Waseem)
  • Bernstein , H. , Daniel , E. V. and Brass , T. , eds. 1910 . Natal Mercury 9 Dec. ‘Coolie’ was a derogatory term used by whites to refer to Indians. As Valentine Daniel has shown, ‘coolie’ is a mixture of Gujarati and Tamil terms and has to do with a denial of personhood and suggestions of someone devoid of morals: see E.V. Daniel, ‘The Making of a Coolie’, in, eds, Plantations, Proletariat and Peasants in Colonial Asia (London, 1992)
  • 1902 . Natal Advertiser, 23 Apr.
  • Soofie , Mohamed and Aziz Soofie , Abdul . 1999 . Hazrath Soofie Saheb And His Khanqaha 45 Durban
  • Ibid., 50.
  • Mahida , E. M. 1993 . History of Muslims in South Africa: A Chronology 23 Durban
  • Bayly . Saints, Godesses and Kings 93–4
  • Soofie , Soofie and . Soofie Saheb 56–8
  • Mahida . Muslims in South Africa 44
  • This article is part of a larger project dealing with the establishment of the Muslim community in Natal. A later article will focus on the relations between indentured and passenger Muslims, as well as the formation of the Muslim community among the descendants of Muslim migrants. This larger project on religion and culture among indentured Indians is being done in collaboration with S. Bhana

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