- Keegan , T. 1986 . Rural Transformations in Industrialising South Africa: The Southern Highveld to 1914 Johannesburg : paper to South African Historical Society Biennial Conference . (and ‘Industrialisation and Rural Change in South Africa: Transformations on the Highveld’, Pietermaritzburg1989. Keegan's writing is a reaction to earlier writings by, among others, Colin Bundy, Mike Morris and Marian Lacey
- Union of South Africa, Minutes of Evidence to the Natives Land Commission (U.G. 22–1914), evidence of D.R. Hunt, 386
- UG 22–1914, evidence of G.J.W. du Toit, 261
- Delius , See P. 1983 . The Land Belongs to Us Johannesburg 102 and R.G. Morrell, ‘Rural Transformations in the Transvaal: The Middelburg District, 1919–1930’ (unpub. MA thesis, University of the Witwatersrand, 1983), 138–9
- Union of South Africa . Majority Report of the Eastern Transvaal Natives’ Land Committee (U.G. 32–1918) evidence of P.J. van der Merwe and B.P. Dodd, 12, 17
- U.G. 22–1914, evidence of General T. Smuts, 260
- Colony of the Transvaal, Transvaal Native Affairs Department, Annual Report (T.G. 16–1910): 36
- U.G. 22–1914, evidence of SNC T. Edwards, 411;Morrell, ‘Rural Transformations’, 124
- African Studies Institute, University of Witwatersrand, Oral History Transcripts: testimony of E. Sibanyoni, 47;testimony of J. Jiyane, 18;U.G. 22–1914, 274
- U.G. 22–1914, evidence of Edwards, 411
- ibid. evidence of Edwards, 410; U.G. 32–1918, evidence of SNC B.P. Dodd, 17
- It is difficult to measure this but the high level of migrancy in the district suggests that Africans were searching for seasonal labour and were also being forced to look for alternate accommodation. Of those displaced, some at least must have gone north (to the reserves). (Colony of the Transvaal, Annual Report of the Transvaal NAD for Year Ended 30 June 1906, 105.7 638 passes were issued fortravel outside the district, 5325 for travel within the district.)
- Colony of the Transvaal, Transvaal Native Affairs Department Annual Report (T.G. 8–1909): 46
- Union of South Africa, Union Native Affairs Department Annual Report (U.G. 14–1927): 18
- Beinart , W. 1982 . The Political Economy of Pondoland 1860–1930 131 – 3 . Johannesburg
- SNA 294, 3252/05, SNC Pokwani to Resident Magistrate, 27 Oct. 1905;SNA 455, 125/10, Pokwani Monthly Report for June, 6 July 1910
- T.G. 16–19–10, 41
- Beinart . Political Economy 131; J. Lewis, ‘The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry: A Critique and Re-assessment’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 11, 1 (1984)
- U.G. 22–1914, evidence of DR. Hunt, 386;U.G. 32–1918, 146
- Trapido , S. 1978 . ‘Landlord and Tenant in a Colonial Economy: The Transvaal 1880–1910' . Journal of Southern African Studies , 5 : 1 38
- For the conflict between the Berlin Missionary Society and the African inhabitants see P. Delius, ‘From Refuge to Resistance’, in Douglas C. Hindson, ed., Working papers in Southern African Studies, Vol. 3 (Johannesburg, 1983)
- Plaatje , Sol T. 1982 . Native Life in South Africa Johannesburg 33
- SNA 374, 2414/07, Monthly Report, June 1907;SNA 368,1298/07, SNC Sekukuniland Monthly Report, March 1907. For an account of Doornkop's history see D. James, The Road from Doornkop (Johannesburg, 1983) and Morrell, ‘Rural Transformations’, 141–2
- NTS 229/308, Copy of Contract of Service, n.d
- Farmers in the western Transvaal also found renting to Africans very lucrative. See M. Nkadimeng and G. Relly, ‘Kas Maine, the Story of a Black South African Agriculturist’, in B. Bozzoli, ed., Town and Countryside in the Transvaal (Johannesburg, 1983), 98
- NTS 299/308, J.J. Williams to Louis Botha, 30 Sept. 1913
- NTS 299/308, Extract from letter from Ngcayiya, 22 Sept. 1913
- NTS 299/308, NC Middelburg to SNA, 11 Dec. 1913
- NTS 299/208, Under Secretary, NAD to Magistrate, Middelburg, 8 May 1914
- NTS 299/308, Rooth and Wessels to SNA, 29 Oct. 1915
- Selope Thema , R. V. , Mutloatse , M. and Even , C , eds. 1981 . “ ‘How Congress Began’ ” . In Reconstruction 109 Johannesburg Bundy obscures the class character of African landowners by suggesting that they provided ‘refuge’ for evicted peasants: The Rise and Fall of the South African Peasantry (London, 1979), 190. Selope Thema was totally blind to Seme's concern with profit. So was Sol Plaatje who wrote that Seme's farms offered an ‘asylum’ to expelled OFS squatters. (Plaatje, Native Life 95.)
- Platzky , See L. and Walker , C. , eds. 1985 . The Surplus People: Forced Removals in South Africa Johannesburg 74, 293
- NTS 299/308, Seme to Pass Officer, Wonderfontein, 4 Dec. 1915;NTS 299/308, Various statements, 23 March 1916
- NTS 299/308, Aling to SNA, 5 June 1916
- Keegan , T. , Marks , S. and Rathbone , R. , eds. “ ‘The sharecropping economy, African class formation and the Natives’ Land Act of 1913 in the highveld maize belt’ ” . eds., Industrialisation and Social Change in Southern Africa (London, 1982), 207
- Beinart, Political Economy, 123
- Union of South Africa, Evidence to the Eastern Transvaal Natives Land Committee (UG 31–1918), evidence of Dodd and C.E. Schutte, 11, 19
- Trapido , S. , Beinart , W. , Delius , P. and Trapido , S. , eds. 1986 . Putting a Plough to the Ground Johannesburg has argued the opposite–that land companies in the period before Union at least, actively aided and encouraged a ‘peasantry’: ‘Landlord and Tenant’, 37. See also his ‘Putting a Plough to the Ground: A History of Tenant Production on the Vereeniging Estates, 1896–1920’
- NTS 15/318, Report on Pitso, 21 Oct. 1930, 7. Capt. J.C. Collins, NC Middelburg, addressed the pitso and urged land purchase
- Morrell, ‘Rural Transformations’, 300
- NTS 156/323: NTS 429/308. For a recent account and assessment of these events, see M.J. Murray,’ “Burning the Wheat Stacks”: Land Clearances and Agrarian Unrest along the Northern Middelburg Frontier, c. 1918–1926’, Journal of Southern African Studies, 15, 1 (1988)
- NTS 388/308
- See NTS 25/308
- Evidence by J.C. Yates to the Native Economic Commission, 1932,830. Like white farmers, Mochadi used his land to secure credit. URU 1079, 2766, 15 Aug. 1929
- U.G. 32–1918, 19
- U.G. 31–1918,14. Stubbs was not convinced that individual tenure was the only cause and suggested that the ‘temperament’ of Africans was also to blame
- U.G. 22–1914, evidence of W.G. van E. Schuurman (Bethal farmer), 323
- Cooper , F. 1981 . ‘Peasants, Capitalists, and Historians: A Review Article’ . Journal of Southern African Studies , 7 : 2 305–6
- U.G. 22–1914, 411
- U.G. 32–1918, 16
- Beinart, Political Economy, 126
- ibid.
- T.G. 16–1910, 37;NTS 110/308, Acting SNC Pokwani to SNA, 8 Dec. 1922
- Union of South Africa, Report of the Natives Land Commissioin Vol. 2 (UG 22–1916): 48; ASI Oral History Transcripts, testimony of S. Skhosana, 61;testimony of E. Sibanyoni, 12–3, 19–20
- See Bundy, Rise and Fall, 210; P. Rich, ‘The Origins of Apartheid Ideology: The Case of Ernest Stubbs and the Transvaal Native Afairs Department, c. 1902–1932’, African Affairs, 79, 315 (1980): 189
- For a full account of this, see Delius, The Lańd, Chapter 7
- Alliances based on access to land (which drove a wedge between the landed and landless) continued to be a feature in the area in the Betterment era. See James, Doornkop, 50
- Meintjes , S. ‘Property Relations amongst the Edendale Kholwa 1850–1900’, Journal of Natal and Zulu History, 7 (1984): 27
- Marks , S. 1986 . The Ambiguities of Dependence in South Africa Johannesburg The close links between chiefs and the wealthy or upwardly mobile is well illustrated with reference to Natal by
- Morris , M. 1976 . ‘The Development of Capitalism in South African Agriculture: Class Struggle in the Countryside’ . Economy and Society , 5 : 3 This argument parallels that of Mike Morris which suggests that townward migration was an alternative form of class response to that of resistance
- SNA 283, 2443/05, Report on Pitso, 11 Aug. 1905, 16 Aug. 1905, 5;Union of South Africa, Transvaal Native Affairs Annual Report for 1910 (U.G. 15–1911): 24
- SNA 3265/09, SNC Pokwani to NC Middelburg, 22 Sept. 1909;Hlakudi to Officers in charge of SAC (?), 29 Sept. 1909;Statement by Jeremiah Mkiza, native constable, Transvaal Police, Tautesberg, n.d
- U.G. 32–1918, 8
- ibid. 16
- Cope , Nicholas . provides evidence for the development of an alliance between the Kholwa and the tribal elites in Natal over the issue of land purchase in the 1910s and 1920s: ‘The Zulu Petty Bourgeoisie and Zulu Nationalism in the 1920s: Origins of Inkatha’, paper to Workshop on Regionalism and Restructuring in Natal, Natal University (Durban), 1988, 10–1
- Marks makes the same point: Ambiguities, 65
- Beinart, Political Economy, 123
- In Natal the limitation placed on individual land purchase by the 1913 Act was described by the Kholwa as a ‘mortal wound’: Marks, Ambiguities, 63–4
- Keegan agrees with this assessment: Rural Transformations, 194
- Walshe , P. 1970 . The Rise of African Nationalism London Seme's bona fides in regard to African liberation are not questioned by either(orT. Karis and G. Carter, From Protest to Challenge Vol. 1 (Stanford, 1972)
- Odendaal , A. 1984 . Vukani Bantu The Beginnings of Black Protest Politics in South Africa to 1912 276 Cape Town and Johannesburg
- Bradford , H. ‘Mass Movements and the Petty Bourgeoisie: The Social Origins of ICU Leadership, 1924–1929' . Journal of African History , 25 (1984)
- Walshe notes (in a footnote on p. 43) Seme's land company involvement and Gerhart and Karis merely speculate that Seme's ownership of the Wakkerstroom farms may have triggered the Land Act: From Protest to Challenge, Vol. 4, 138
- One might have expected the SANNC to use the courts to resist white encroachment into the reserve but there is no evidence that it tried even this orthodox channel
- Union of South Africa, Union Native Affairs Department Annual Report (U.G: 7–1919): 34
- Grundlingh , A. 1987 . Fighting Their Own War: South African Blacksand the First World War 12 Johannesburg
- U.G. 31–1918, 5–6
- Bonner , P. ‘The Transvaal Native Congress 1917–1920: The Radicalisation of the Black Petty Bourgeoisie on the Rand’, in Marks and Rathbone . Industrialisation , 304
- ibid.
- NTS 23/332, F.J. Rousseau to Minister of Defence, 5 Nov. 1924
- Additional evidence showing that the TNC was organizing meetings in Middelburg in 1923 suggests that it was more active than has previously been suspected: Bradford, ‘“A Taste of Freedom”: Capitalist Development and Response to the ICU in the Transvaal Countryside’, in Bozzoli, Town and Countryside, 133. The Middelburg Observer, 7 Dec. 1923;JUS 387, 3/1208/24
- JUS 386, 3/84/24, J.E.D. Travers to SAP, n.d
- JUS 386, 3/84/24, SAP reports, 30 July 1924, 12 Sept. 1924, 29 Sept. 1924
- Momba , J. 1985 . ‘Peasant Differentiation and Rural Party Politics in Colonial Zambia’ . Journal of Southern African Studies , 11 : 2 Much more needs to be known about rural class formation to begin to make accurate statements about rural class responses. Jothan Momba has done some interesting work in Zambia to show the impact of differentiation on rural politics. A similar study is awaited in South a. Afric
- Rich, ‘Origins’, 190
- MMG 4/1/20, File 103, Location Supervisor to Stadsklerk, 6 July 1925
- 1977 . The Societies of Southern Africa in the 19th and 20th Centuries, ICS Collected Seminar Papers , 8 : 1984 Bradford, ‘Taste’, 136, 144. Bundy writes that ‘in the Transvaal a number of chiefs joined the ICU bringing their followers with them’: ‘Land and Liberation: The South African National Liberation Movement and the Agrarian Question, 1920s—1960s’, Review of African Political Economy 29: 16. Whether this was a particularly widespread response has yet to be established, though Baruch Hirson suggests that for the 1930s, chiefs were either neutral or antagonistic towards their labour tenant ‘followers’, but rarely behind them: ‘Rural Revolt in South Africa, 1937–1951’, in22: 120
- Bradford, ‘Taste’, 139
- NTS 15/318, Middelburg Pitso, 21 Oct. 1930, 4;NTS 15/318, Middelburg Pitso, 20 March 1929, 4
- Karis and Carter . From Protest to Challenge Vol. 1, 316–7
South African Historical Journal
Volume 21, 1989 - Issue 1