- Cobley , A. 1990 . Class and Consciousness: The Black Petty Bourgeoisie in South Africa, 1924 to 1950 3 – 12 . New York and Westport, Conn. See my discussion on the historiography of the black petty bourgeoisie in
- la Hausse , P. 1982 . Africa Perspective , 20 : 63 – 32 . See, 'Drinking in a Cage: The Durban System and the 1929 Riots', P. la Hausse, The Struggle for the City: Alcohol, the Ematsheni and Popular Culture in Durban, 1902–1936' (MA thesis, University of Cape Town, 1984);P. la Hausse, Brewers, Beerhalls and Boycotts: A History of Liquor in South Africa (Johannesburg, 1988);C. van Onselen, ‘Randlords and Rotgut’, in C. van Onselen, Studies in the Social and Economic History of the Witwatersrand 1886–1914, vol. 1: New Babylon (London, 1982);H. Bradford, ‘“We Are Now the Men”: Women's Beer Protests in the Natal Countryside, 1929’, in B. Bozzoli, ed., Class, Community and Conflict: South African Perspectives (Johannesburg, 1987);H. Bradford, A Taste of Freedom: The ICU in Rural South Africa, 1924–1930 (Johannesburg, 1988);C. Rogerson, ‘“Shishma Nyama”: The Rise and Fall of the Native Eating House Trade in Johannesburg’, Social Dynamics 14, 1 (1988), 20–33;C. Rogerson, ‘“In Their Right Place”: Beer Halls in Johannesburg, 1938–1962’, African Studies 51, 1 (1992), 95–122;W.G. Mills, ‘The Roots of African Nationalism in the Cape Colony: Temperance, 1866–1898’, International Journal of African Historical Studies 13, 2 (1980), 197–213. See also the work of Michael West on colonial Zimbabwe and Charles Ambler on colonial Zambia: M. West, ‘“Equal Rights for All Civilized Men”: Elite Africans and the Quest for ‘European’ Liquor in Colonial Zimbabwe, 1924–1961’, International Review of Social History 37, 3 (1992), 376–97;C. Ambler, ‘Alcohol, Racial Segregation and Popular Politics in Northern Rhodesia’, Journal of African History 31, 2 (1990), 295–313
- Crush , J. and Ambler , C. , eds. 1992 . Liquor and Labor in Southern Africa Athens, Ohio and Pieter-maritzburg
- Ambler , C. and Crush , J. “ ‘Alcohol in Southern African Labour History” . In Liquor and Labor Edited by: Crush and Ambler . 2 and 4
- la Hausse , P. “ ‘Drink and Cultural Innovation in Durban: The Origins of the Beerhall in South Africa, 1902–1916’ ” . In Liquor and Labor Edited by: Crush and Ambler . 95 – 9 . esp
- Ambler , C. 1987 . “ ‘Alcohol and Disorder in Precolonial Africa’, in ” . In Working Papers in African Studies No. 126 Boston : Centre for African Studies .
- Ambler and Crush . ‘Alcohol in Southern African Labor History’ 7
- Fishman , R. 1986 . The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Drugs: Alcohol and Alcoholism 53 – 32 . New York See, for example, discussions in, and D.W. Goodwin, Alcoholism: The Facts (Oxford, 1981), 63–6. It is interesting to note that a field study conducted in Jamaica in 1966 found a lower rate of excessive drinkers among Jamaicans of African origin than for every other ethnic group except the Chinese, with white Jamaicans having the highest rates. However, the researchers largely discounted any ethnic factor and concluded that ‘[h]eavy drinking increased with social class, income and education’: M. Beaubrun, “The Nature of Alcoholism: Classification and Diagnostic Criteria', in E. Shulterbrandt, ed., Proceedings of the Caribbean Institute on Alcoholism, June 17–26, 1975, June 1–12, 1976, St Thomas, US Virgin Islands (Caribbean Institute on Alcoholism, St Thomas, US Virgin Islands, 1976), 77
- Onselen , Van . Randlords and Rotgut See
- Mills . “The Roots of African Nationalism', 209
- Gaitskell , D. 1990 . “ ‘Devout Domesticity? A Century of African Women's Christianity in South Africa’ ” . In Women and Gender in Southern Africa to 1945 Edited by: Walker , C. 257 Cape Town and London esp
- Mahlamvu , J. J. 29 Dec. 1934 . “ Grand True Secretary' of Transvaal IOTT ” . In Bantu World 29 Dec. , According to Mills, the IOTT was begun by the Revd H. Keyser (of the London Missionary Society) and a Mr Geard of Lovedale who helped to establish the first ‘Temple’ at Lovedale in 1876: Mills, ‘The Roots of African Nationalism’, 205–6. Slightly different versions of the IOTT's origins are given in a letter from ‘, in, and by G.H. Nduna, ‘Grand True Secretary’ of the South Eastern Grand Temple in ‘A Short History of (I.O.T.T.) South Eastern Grand Temple', contained in IOTT: South Eastern Grand Temple Session (Easter, 1964). A copy of the latter is in the Independent Order of True Templars Records held at the Library, School of Oriental and African Studies, London. For a discussion of the origins of the Good Templars in the United States and its stormy early history in Britain, see L.L. Shiman, Crusade Against Drink in Victorian England (London, 1988), 178–82
- 19 Jan. 1935 . Bantu World 19 Jan. , Already by 1898 there were over 40 temples and 5 000 members in the Cane Colony: Mills. “The Roots of African Nationalism'. 209
- July 1931 . Our Heritage (Kimberley) July , 9 p
- Jabavu , D. D.T. 1969 . The Black Problem: Papers and Addresses on Various Native Problems 169 New York repr
- Willan , B. P. 1984 . Sol Plaatje: South African Nationalist, 1876–1932 318 London Plaatje's work for the IOTT is discussed on pp. 375–380. Willan records Plaatje's bitter disappointment in his final years that his sons, St Leger and Halley, had become heavy drinkers despite his strong moral objections (p. 383). Names of active members and office holders of the IOTT are drawn from the Independent Order of True Templars Records
- University of the Witwatersrand (hereafter UW), A1618, T.D.M. Skota Papers, file 13, ‘Constitution [of the Order of Africa]’
- 5 Mar. 1931 . Abantu-Batho 5 Mar. ,
- Karis , T. and Carter , G. M. , eds. 1973 . From Protest to Challenge: Documents of African Politics in South Africa, 1882–1964, vol. 2: Hope and Challenge 1935–1952 300 – 9 . Stanford, California ‘Congress Youth League Manifesto’, issued by the Provisional Committee of the Congress Youth League, Mar. 1944: Document 48 in, eds
- Ellis , S. and Sechaba , T. 1992 . Comrades Against Apartheid: The ANC and the South African Communist Party in Exile 119 London After the ANC was transformed from a non-violent protest movement to a clandestine revolutionary organisation with its own military wing during the 1960s, the need to preserve discipline meant that these high ethical standards could be harshly enforced at times. According to Ellis and Sechaba, when a campaign was launched against dagga smokers in the ANC's military camps in April 1981, 'suspected users [were] interrogated and beaten, the normal mode of punishment being to leave offenders tied to a tree for a three-week period‘: This puritanical attitude echoed the position of the Soweto Students' Representative Council at the time of the Soweto Rising in 1976, which had roundly condemned bottle stores, beerhalls and shebeens for their role in draining the pay packets and sapping the will to fight of their parents. The result was that liquor outlets quickly became a focus of anger among the youth, who launched a violent campaign to close down the liquor trade in the townships. As La Hausse puts it, ‘Burning bottle-stores and beerhalls symbolised the need for discipline and commitment in the struggle for freedom': La Hausse, Brewers, Beerhalls and Boycotts, 67;see also Crush and Ambler, ‘Liquor in Southern African Labor History’, 34–5
- Liquor Act 1928' UW, AD1178, ref. D3, Ambrose Lynn Saffeiy Papers, 'African National Congress. 17th Annual Session, Bloemfontein, 2 April 1929. [Resolution on]
- Nicols , M. 1991 . A Good-Looking Corpse: The World of DRUM-Jazz and Gangsters, Hope and Defiance in the Townships of South Africa 105 – 7 . London See, for example, Can Themba's article of May 1957, ‘Boozers Beware of Barberton’ reproduced in
- Nicol . A Good-Looking Corpse 99 – 102 . See, for example, ‘Shebeens I Have Known by Skappie’, in
- Schadeberg , J. A Good Looking Corpse 97 (Drum photographer), quoted in Nicol,.See also comments by Jean Hart and Jim Bailey: ibid, 98
- 1935 . The Illicit Liquor Problem on the Witwatersrand: Report of Unofficial Commission Appointed by the South African Temperance Alliance and the South African Institute of Race Relations 25 – 6 . Johannesburg Reported in para 60–74, 115–116. The Chinese flourished briefly as operators of ‘Kaffir Eating Houses' in Johannesburg between 1908 and 1920, mainly because they supplied their customers with a heady beverage called ‘hopana‘. Although the authorities were never able to prove that ‘hopana’ was alcoholic, notwithstanding its apparent intoxicating effects, pressure from mine owners led to its banning in 1918, and thereafter Chinese participation in the ‘Eating House’ trade declined: Rogerson, ‘Shisha Nyama'
- Orpen , J. M. July/Aug. 1913 . Natives, Drink, Labour: Our Duty (pamphlet reprint of articles in the East London Daily Despatch July/Aug. , 73
- Peregrino , F. Z.S. 1918? . “ Wis ” . In Majesty's Black Labourers: A Treatise on the Camp Life, etc of the S.A.N.L.C. 9 Cape Town (pamphlet
- July 1931 . Our Heritage (Kimberley) July , 7 p
- Cope , N. L.G. 1985 . 196 “The Zulu Royal Family Under the South African Government, 1910–1933: Solomon Ka Dinuzulu, Inkatha and Zulu Nationalism' (PhD thesis, University of Natal, Durban,. A revised version of Cope's thesis has been published under the title To Bind The Nation;Solomon kaDinuzulu and Zulu Nationalism 1913–1993 (Pietermaritzburg, 1993)
- Cope, The Zulu Royal Family', 176. However, Cope notes that having got access to £3 000 in Inkatha funds, Solomon used the money to buy a Buick
- To Bind the Nation 230 – 1 . Cope
- Ibid , 241 244 – 1 . 270. As a result of the incident Solomon's stipend was reduced and his liquor licence was revoked
- Marks , S. 1986 . “ The Drunken King and the Nature of the State' ” . In The Ambiguities of Dependence in South Africa: Class, Nationalism, and State in Twentieth-Century South Africa Edited by: Marks , S. 20 – 1 . Johannesburg in
- Saunders , C . 1991 . ‘Pixley Seme: Towards a Biography’ . South African Historical Journal , 25 Nov. : 196 – 217 . For a recent survey of Seme's career, see
- photocopy of transcript held in the Library, School of Oriental and African Studies, MS 380777, pp. 62–3.‘Unpublished Autobiography of H. Selby Msimang 1888-’ (transcript of tape recordings made in Pietermaritzburg, Natal, 1975–6)
- UW, A410, William G. Ballinger Papers, C2.3.7, ICU file 4, ‘Minutes of the Meeting of the Sub-Committee of the National Council of the I.C.U. Held in the I.C.U. Workers' Hall, 14 Market Street, in Johannesburg, on Thursday, February 28th, 1929’, p. 3
- ‘Struck Off: Native Attorney's Lapse’, Umeteli Wa Bantu (Johannesburg), 1 Oct. 1932.‘Native Economic Commission, 1930–1932: Minutes of Evidence’ (typescript), Box 8, p. 7402
- 30 Apr. 1931 . 30 Apr. , The ANC newspaper, which was under the control of Seme's rival, J.T. Gumede, and his radical faction, offered a scathing commentary on his capacity for running up debts as President General, despite being ‘controlled and financed by a certain Russian Jewish lady’: Abantu-Bmho, 19 Mar. 1931. See also ‘Who Shall Pay the Debt? The African National Congress Committee in Predicament’, Abantu-Bmho. Such charges recall the accusations levelled at Kadalie of the ICU at the time of his resignation in 1929, that he was under the influence of white women patrons and 'sweethearts'
- Edgar , R. R. , ed. 1992 . An African American in South Africa: The Travel Notes of Ralph J. Bunche 28 September-1 January 1938 273 Athens, Ohio and Johannesburg 277
- Roux , E. 1944 . S.P. Bunting: A Political Biography 118 Cape Town
- Nzula , A. T. , Potekhin , I. I. and Zusmanovich , A. Z. 1979 . Forced Labour in Colonial Africa London Many of the writings of Albert Nzula while in Moscow are contained in Some biographical details are given in the introduction by Robin Cohen
- Roux . Bunting 123
- Ibid 127
- Trewhela , P. 1988 . “The Death of Albert Nzula and the Silence of George Padmore', in . Searchlight South Africa , 1 ( 1 ) Sep. : 64 – 9 . See
- Edgar , R. 1983 . ‘Notes on the Life and Death of Albert Nzula’ . International Journal of African Historical Studies , 16 ( 4 ) : 677 – 8 . this passage is quoted by Trewhela, ‘Death of Albert Nzula’, 65
- Jingoes , S J. 1975 . A Chief is a Chief by the People: The Autobiography of Stimela Jason Jingoes 121 London
- Ibid
- 16 – 17 . Reported by Ballinger in ‘Minutes of the Meeting of the Sub-Committee of the National Council of the ICU … February 28th, 1929’, pp
- Mouton , F. A. 1993 . ‘“A Rising Councillor”: The Origins and Making of William Ballinger, 1892–1928’ . Kkio , 25 : 79 – 94 . UW, A410, C2.3.7, ICU File 4, W.G. Ballinger Papers, W. Ballinger to A. Fenner Brockway, 15 May 1929. For a discussion of Ballinger's early years in Motherwell, see
- Bradford . A Taste of Freedom 163
- Ballinger , W. G. , Papers , W. , Ballinger , G. and Creech Jones , A. sic UW, A410, C2.3.7, ICU File 4, 30 Jan. 1929. In a report on his first year as Adviser to the Union, Ballinger angrily denied that political machinations on his part lay behind Kadalie's resignation: ‘I wish it to be thoroughly understood, that this incident was not engineered. Kadalie's involved domestic relations, and two Police court convictions for Drunkenness and Abusive language, made his retention of the General Secretaryship impossible. … It was followed by the formation of the “Independent I.C.U.”, and a series of viturperative [] attacks upon myself. Lying innuendoes and statements were circulated, with the object of making me give up’: UW, A410, C2.3.7, ICU File 4, W.G. Ballinger Papers, I.C.U. Adviser's Report, July 1928 to June 1929
- UW, A410, C2.3.7, ICU File 4, W.G. Ballnger Papers, W. Ballinger to A Creech Jones, 30 Jan. 1929
- Edgar . An African American in South Africa 267
- Apr. 1955 . “ Bantu World unless he was ‘half-cut’: ‘Masterpieces in Bronze-R.V.S. Thema’ ” . In The African Drum Apr. , Fellow journalist, Henry Nxumalo, recalled in an affectionate posthumous tribute to Thema that in his later years he had been incapable of writing his editorial for, in
- Gready , P. 1990 . “The Sophiatown Writers of the Fifties: The Unreal Reality of Their World' . Journal of Southern African Studies , 16 ( 1 ) Mar. : 156
- A Good-Looking Corpse 97 Quoted in Nicol
- Gilbey , E. 25 Apr. 1992 . “The Fall-Winnie Mandela: A Soul Divided' ” . In The Guardian 25 Apr. , In very recent times, an unauthorised biography of Winnie Mandela by Emma Gilbey (ironically of the famous gin-manufacturing family) seeks to reconcile two competing images of Mrs Mandela as ‘Mother of the Nation’ and as a politically damaging maverick, prey to questionable judgment, by according drunkenness a primary explanatory role. Gilbey alleges that after years of courageous and lonely struggle, Mrs Mandela began drinking heavily while in internal exile at Brandfort during the 1970s. This alcohol consumption, claims the biographer, contributed to personality changes which made Mrs Mandela ‘more volatile, more defiant, more violent … more imperious, more remote’. Ultimately, when faced with the scandal surrounding the death of Stompie Moeketsi in December 1988, in which her bodyguards, the ‘Mandela Football Team’ were heavily implicated, 'She was unable to assume-blame, as she drank more heavily and slid further into the abyss'. Thus, the concept of alcoholism as an illness is used both to explain and excuse recent less palatable aspects of her behaviour, but also implicitly to belittle her continuing role. These charges were given added weight by the fact that they were pre-published in newspaper extracts during 1992 at a time when Mrs Mandela was struggling to assert an independent political line to that of her husband. Extracts first published in.The biography, entitled The Lady: The Rise and Fall of Winnie Mandela, was published in South Africa in June 1994, but to date has not appeared in England
South African Historical Journal
Volume 31, 1994 - Issue 1