‘Too many parties and still counting’: in defense of multiparty democracy in Zimbabwe

References

• Afrobarometer, 2018. Findings from a Pre-Election Baseline Survey in Zimbabwe, April/ May 2018, https://www.afrobarometer.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/zim_r7_presentation_07062018.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Ansolabehere, S., and M. S. Puy. 2018. “Measuring Issue-Salience in Voters’ Preferences.” Electoral Studies 51: 103–114. doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2017.09.008.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beetham, D. 1994. “Conditions for Democratic Consolidation.” Review of African Political Economy 21 (60): 157–172. doi:10.1080/03056249408704053
   Google Scholar
• Biney, A. 2008. “The Legacy of Kwame Nkrumah in Retrospect.” Journal of Pan African Studies 2 (3).
   Google Scholar
• Bogaards, M. 2000. “Crafting Competitive Party Systems: Electoral Laws and the Opposition in Africa.” Democratization 7 (4): 163–190. doi:10.1080/13510340008403688.
   Google Scholar
• Bratton, M., and E.V. Masunungure. 2018a. “Public Attitudes toward Zimbabwe's 2018 Elections: Downbeat yet Hopeful?”. Afrobarometer Policy Paper No. 47 | June 2018 available at:https://afrobarometer.org/sites/default/files/publications/Documents%20de%20politiques/ab_r7_policypaperno47_public_attitudes_toward_zimbabwe_2018_election_1.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Bratton, M., and E.V. Masunungure. 2018b. “Zimbabwe’s Presidential Race Tightens one Month Ahead of July 30 Voting”. Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 223, 20 July 2018 available at: http://archive.humanrights.org.zw:8080/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/144/1551705825411qcqoat29028.pdf?sequence=1
   Google Scholar
• Bratton, M., and N. Van de Walle. 1997. Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Brown, S., and P. Kaiser. 2007. “Democratisations in Africa: Attempts, Hindrances and Prospects.” Third World Quarterly 28 (6): 1131–1149. doi:10.1080/01436590701507552.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Campbell, A., P.E., Converse., W.E. Miller., and D.E Stokes. 1960. The American Voter. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
   Google Scholar
• Campbell, A., G. Gurin, and W. Miller. 1954. The Voter Decides. Evanston, IL: Row and Peterson.
   Google Scholar
• Carbone, G. M., 2001. No-party Democracy? Political Organisation Under Movement Democracy in Uganda, 1994-2000. London School of Economics and Political Science (United Kingdom).
   Google Scholar
• Crotty, W., and G. Jacobson.1980. American Parties in Decline. Boston: Little, Brown.
   Google Scholar
• Dahl, R. A. 1971. Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition. New Haven: Yale University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dahl, R. A., 2007 “Interpreting Partisan Dealignment in Germany”. German Politics, 23(1-2): 134-144.doi: 10.1080/09644008.2013.853040.
   Google Scholar
• Dalton, R. 1984. “Cognitive Mobilization and Partisan Dealignment in Advanced Industrial Democracies.” The Journal of Politics 46 (1): 264–284.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Vries, C. E., and S. B. Hobolt. 2020. Political Entrepreneurs. The Rise of Challenger Parties. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Doorenspleet, R., and L. Nijzink. 2014. Do Party Systems Help or Hinder Democracy in Africa?. In Party Systems and Democracy in Africa, Palgrave Macmillan, London:171–187.
   Google Scholar
• Downs, A. 1957. An Economic Theory of Democracy. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
   Google Scholar
• The Economist. 2017. "Splitters Too Many Parties Can Spoilpolitics." The Economist, January 14. https://www.economist.com/leaders/2017/01/12/too-many-parties-can-spoil-politics.
   Google Scholar
• EISA., 2007. Zimbabwe: 2005 House of Assembly election results available: https://www.eisa.org/wep/zimresults2005.htm
   Google Scholar
• EISA., 2018. Zimbabwe: 2018 Presidential election results available at: https://www.eisa.org/wep/zim2018results.htm
   Google Scholar
• Enyedi, Z. 2008. “The Sociological and Attitudinal Basis of Parties.” Cleavage Politics Revisited 16 (3): 287–304.
   Google Scholar
• Enyedi, Z. 2014. “The Discreet Charm of Political Parties”. Party Politics, 20(2):194-204. doi:10.1177/1354068813519959
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enyedi, Z. 2016a “Populist Polarization and Party System Institutionalization: The Role of Party Politics in De-Democratisation". Problems of Post-Communism, 63(4):210-220. doi:10.1080/10758216.2015.1113883
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Enyedi, Z. 2016b “The influence of voting advice applications on preferences, loyalties and turnout: An experimental study”. Political Studies, 64(4):1000-1015. doi:10.1080/10758216.2015.1113883
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friedman, S. 1999. “Agreeing to Differ: African Democracy, its Obstacles and Prospects.” Social Research”, 825–858.
   Google Scholar
• Friesen, P. 2022. “The Partisan Consequences of Liberation Mentality:Ruling party support in Zimbabwe across space and Time.” Party Politics 0 (0): 1–16.
   Google Scholar
• Gibson, J. L. 1992. “The Political Consequences of Intolerance: Cultural Conformity and Political Freedom.” American Political Science Review 86 (2): 338–356. doi:10.2307/1964224
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goetz, A. M. 2002. “No Shortcuts to Power: Constraints on Women's Political Effectiveness in Uganda.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 40 (4): 549–575. doi:10.1017/S0022278X02004032
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hawker, G. 2020. “Zimbabwe: Governance by Default.” Australasian Review of African Studies 41 (1): 31–48. doi:10.22160/22035184/ARAS-2020-41-1/31-48
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Huntington, S. P. 1991. The Third Wave: Democratisation in the Late Twentieth Century. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hurwitz, J., and J.J. Mondak. 2002. “Democratic Principles, Discrimination and Political Intolerance”. British Journal of Political Science, 32(1):93-118.
   Google Scholar
• Iyengar, S., Lelkes, Y., Levendusky, M., Malhotra, N., and Westwood, S. J. 2019. The origins and consequences of affective polarization in the United States. Annual Review of Political Science, 22, 129-146. doi:10.1017/S0007123402000042
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, R. W. 2000. “Nyerere: A Flawed Hero.” The National Interest 60: 66–75.
   Google Scholar
• Kaldor, M., and I Vejvoda, I. 1997. “Democratization in Central and East European Countries”. International Affairs, 73(1):59-82. doi:10.2307/2623550
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karl, T. L. 1995. “The Hybrid Regimes of Central America.” Journal of Democracy 6 (3): 72–86. doi:10.1353/jod.1995.0049
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kasfir, N. 1998. “‘No-Party Democracy’ in Uganda.” Journal of Democracy 9 (2): 49–63. doi:10.1353/jod.1998.0029
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kedar, O. 2009. Voting for Policy, not Parties: How Voters Compensate for Power Sharing. Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Keulder, C., 2010. “Voting behaviour in Namibia” (ed). State, Society and Democracy, Macmillan Education Namibia (Pty) Ltd:Windhoek: 264-296.
   Google Scholar
• King, A. 1969. “Political Parties in Western Democracies: Some Sceptical Reflections.” Polity 2 (2): 111–141.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kitschelt, H. 1995. “Formation of Party Cleavages in Post-Communist Democracies.” Party Politics 1: 447–472. doi:10.1177/1354068895001004002.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kotze, J. S., and N. Bohler-Muller. 2019. “Editorial: Quo Vadis? Reflections on the 2019 South African General Elections”. Politikon, 46(4):365-370. doi:10.1080/02589346.2019.1692520
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kriger, N., 2005. ZANU(PF) Strategies in General Elections, 1980-2000: Discourse and Coercion. African Affairs, 104(414): 1-34. doi:10.1093/afraf/adi016.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kuenzi, M., and G. Lambright. 2005. “Party Systems and Democratic Consolidation in Africa’s Electoral Regimes”. Party Politics, 11(4):423-446. doi:10.1177/1354068805053211
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurgat, P., 2022. 46 Independent Candidates Join Race For State House [LIST], 2 May 2022 Kenyans.co.ke Available at: https://www.kenyans.co.ke/news/75280-46-independent-candidates-join-race-state-house-list
   Google Scholar
• Laakso, L. 2003. “Opposition Politics in Independent Zimbabwe.” African Studies Quarterly 7 (2): 119–137.
   Google Scholar
• Laakso, M., and R. Taagepera. 1979. ““Effective” Number of Parties.” Comparative Political Studies 12 (1): 3–27. doi:10.1177/001041407901200101
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lai, B., and R. Melkonian-Hoover, R. 2005. “Democratic Progress and Regress: The Effect of Parties on the Transitions of States to and Away from Democracy”. Political Research Quarterly, 58(4):551-564. doi:10.1177/106591290505800403
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lane, J. E., and S. Ersson. 2007. “Party System Instability in Europe: Persistent Differences in Volatility Between West and East?”. Democratization, 14(1):92-110. doi:10.1080/13510340601024322.
   Google Scholar
• LeBas, A. 2006. “Polarization as Craft: Party Formation and State Violence in Zimbabwe.” Comparative Politics 38 (4): 419–438. doi:10.2307/20434010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeBas, A. 2011. From Protest to Parties: Party-Building and Democratization in Africa. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Lodge, T., D. Kadima and D. Pottie (eds). 2002. Compendium of Elections in Southern Africa, EISA, 442.
   Google Scholar
• Luna, J. P., R.P., Rodríguez., F. Rosenblatt and G. Vommaro. 2021. “Political Parties, Diminished Subtypes, and Democracy”. Party Politics, 27(2):294-307. doi:10.1177/1354068820923723.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Maeda, K., 2010. “Divided we Fall: Opposition Fragmentation and the Electoral Fortunes of Governing Parties”. British Journal of Political Science, 40(2):419-434. doi:10.1017/S000712340999041X
   Google Scholar
• Mainwaring, S., and T. R. Scully. (eds).(1995. Building Democratic Institutions: Party Systems in Latin America. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Makinda, S. M. 1996. “Democracy and Multi-Party Politics in Africa.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 34 (4): 555–573. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00055762
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mandaza, I., and L.M. Sachikonye. 1991. The one-Party State and Democracy: The Zimbabwe Debate. Harare: Sapes Books.
   Google Scholar
• Manning, C., 2005. “Assessing African Party Systems After the Third Wave”. Party Politics, 11(6): 707-727. doi:10.1177/1354068805057606
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Masunungure, E. V., 2004. ‘Travails of opposition politics in Zimbabwe since independence’, in D. Harold-Barry (ed.). Zimbabwe: The Past is the Future, Harare: Weaver Press: 147–192.
   Google Scholar
• Masunungure, E. V., 2017. “In Zimbabwe, opposition and uncommitted support grand opposition coalition idea”.Afrobarometer Dispatch No. 145, 10 May 2017 available at: https://media.africaportal.org/documents/ab_r7_dispatchno145_grand_opposition_coalition_zimbabwe.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Monyani. M., 2018. One Party State: Is It Good or Bad for Governance? 25 May 2018 available at: https://www.e-ir.info/2018/05/25/one-party-state-is-it-good-or-bad-for-governance/
   Google Scholar
• Muchadya. T., 2018. Manyika Takes Presidential Campaign to Rural Areas, Nehanda Radio, 14 July 2018 available at: https://nehandaradio.com/2018/07/14/manyika-takes-presidential-campaign-to-rural-areas/
   Google Scholar
• Mushingeh, C. 1993. “The Evolution of One-Party Rule in Zambia, 1964-1972.” Transafrican Journal of History, 100–121.
   Google Scholar
• Mwonzora, G. 2022. “Opposition Failures in Forming pre-Electoral Coalitions in Zimbabwe.” Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 544–560. doi:10.1080/02589001.2023.2180141.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ndoma, S. 2015. "MDC-T's Defeat: Was it Only Due to Intimidation?". Afrobarometer Policy Paper No. 25. https://media.africaportal.org/documents/ab_r6_policypaperno25_elections_in_zimbabwe.pdf.
   Google Scholar
• Newsday. 13 January 2018.
   Google Scholar
• Newsday. 14 September 2021.
   Google Scholar
• Opalo, K. O. 2022. Hustlers versus Dynasties? The Elusive Quest for Issue-Based Politics in Kenya. The Elusive Quest for Issue-Based Politics in Kenya (September 12, 2022).
   Google Scholar
• Osei, A., 2013. “Political Parties in Ghana: Agents of Democracy?”. Journal of Contemporary African Studies, 31(4):543-563. doi:10.1080/02589001.2013.839227
   Google Scholar
• Paget, D., 2019. “The Rally-Intensive Campaign: A Distinct Form of Electioneering in sub-Saharan Africa and Beyond”. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 24(4):444-464. doi:10.1177/1940161219847952
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersson, O. 1978. “The 1976 Election: New Trends in the Swedish Electorate.” Scandinavian Political Studies 1 (2-3): 109–121. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9477.1978.tb00172.x
   Google Scholar
• Poguntke, T., and P. Webb. (eds). 2005. The Presidentialization of Politics: A Comparative Study of Modern Democracies. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1–26.
   Google Scholar
• Przeworski, A., M. Alvarez, J. A. Cheibub, and F. Limongi. 1996. “What Makes Democracies Endure? “.” Journal of Democracy 7 (1).
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Qadir, S., Clapham, C., and B. Gills. 1993. Sustainable Democracy: Formalism vs Substance.” Third World Quarterly 14 (3): 415–422. doi:10.1080/01436599308420334
   Google Scholar
• Quigley, J. 1991. “Perestroika African Style: One-Party Government and Human Rights in Tanzania.” Michigan Journal of International Law 13 (3): 611–652.
   Google Scholar
• Rabinowitz, G., and S.E. Macdonald. 1989. A Directional Theory of Issue Voting.” American Political Science Review” 83 (1): 93–121.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rakner, L., 2011. “Institutionalizing the pro-Democracy Movements: The Case of Zambia's Movement for Multiparty Democracy”. Democratization, 18(5):1106-1124. doi:10.1080/13510347.2011.603469
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Randall, V., and L. Svåsand. 2002. “Introduction: The Contribution of Parties to Democracy and Democratic Consolidation”. Democratization, 9(3): 1-10. doi:10.1080/714000270
   Google Scholar
• Registrar General of Elections. 2002. “Votes Received per Candidate, NATIONAL TOTALS” in Presidential Elections 2002 Final Results, 26 March.
   Google Scholar
• Roberts, K. M., and E. Wibbels, 1999. Party Systems and Electoral Volatility in Latin America: A Test of Economic, Institutional, and Structural Explanations.” American Political Science Review 93 (3): 575–590. doi:10.2307/2585575
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose, R., 1980. The Problems of Party Government. London: MacMillan.
   Google Scholar
• Salih, M.A., 2003. (ed.). African Political Parties: Evolution, Institutionalism and Governance. London: Pluto Press.
   Google Scholar
• Sanches, E. R. 2014. Explaining Party System Institutionalisation in Africa: From a Broad Comparison to a Focus on Mozambique and Zambia, Doctoral Dissertation. Instituto de Ciências Sociais da Universidade de Lisboa.
   Google Scholar
• Sartori, G., 1976. Parties and Party Systems. A Framework for Analysis, Volume I. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Scheltens, J., 2017. Paradoxes of Politics: Too Many Parties? 26 October 2017, Blog Post, Netherlands Institute for Multiparty Democracy available at: https://nimd.org/paradoxes-of-politics-too-many-parties/
   Google Scholar
• Schumpeter, J. A., 1947. Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy. 2nd (ed.). New York: Harper.
   Google Scholar
• Shaw, W. H. 1986. “Towards the one-Party State in Zimbabwe: A Study in African Political Thought.” The Journal of Modern African Studies 24 (3): 373–394. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00007084
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stokes, D. E. 1962. “Party Loyalty and the Likelihood of Deviating Elections.” The Journal of Politics 24 (4): 689–702. doi:10.1017/S0022381600016182
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stokes, S. C. 1999. “Political Parties and Democracy.” Annual Review of Political Science 2 (1): 243–267. doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.2.1.243
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan, J. L., J. Piereson., and G.E. Marcus. 1979. An Alternative Conceptualization of Political Tolerance: Illusory Increases 1950s–1970s.” American Political Science Review 73 (3): 781–794. doi:10.2307/1955404
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Svåsand, L., 2014. International Party Assistance: What Do We Know About the Effects?. Expertgruppen för biståndsanalys (EBA) available at: https://eba.se/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Report-to-EBA-Lars-Sv%C3%A5sand.pdf
   Google Scholar
• Tendi, B. M., 2013. Robert Mugabe's 2013 Presidential Election Campaign.” Journal of Southern African Studies 39 (4): 963–970. doi:10.1080/03057070.2013.858537
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thomassen, J. 2005. The European Voter. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Tordoff, W. 1967. “Tanzania: Democracy and the one-Party State.” Government and Opposition 2 (4): 599–614. doi:10.1111/j.1477-7053.1967.tb01188.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tsvangirayi, R.M., 2017. Public Address Made at the Zimbabwe Grounds, Highfield, Harare, 6 August 2016, Rally Attended by the Author.
   Google Scholar
• VOA News 26 July (2022). Opposition Leaders in State-Sanctioned POLAD Call for Major Reforms Ahead of 2023 Elections available at: https://www.voazimbabwe.com/a/polad-lovemore-mabhuku-zimbabwe-electoral-reforms/6673476.html
   Google Scholar
• Ware, A. 1987. Citizens, Parties and the State. Oxford: Polity Press.
   Google Scholar
• Weisberg, H. F., and S. Greene. 2003. ‘The Political Psychology of Party Identification’, in M. MacKuen and G. Rabinowitz (eds), Electoral Democracy, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
   Google Scholar