REFERENCES

• Adamowki, K. and Bougadis, J., 2003. Detection of trends in annual extreme rainfall. Hydrological Processes, 17, 3547–3560. doi:10.1002/hyp.1353
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ali, A., 2010. La variabilité et les changements climatiques au Sahel. In: Le Sahel face aux changements climatiques. Enjeux pour un dévelopement durable. Bulletin Spécial Agrhymet. Mars 2010.
   Google Scholar
• Bayazit, M. and Önöz, B., 2007. To prewhiten or not to prewhiten in trend analysis? Hydrological Sciences Journal, 52, 611–624. doi:10.1623/hysj.52.4.611
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burn, D.H. and Hag Elnur, M.A., 2002. Detection of hydrologic trends and variability. Journal Hydrology, 255 (1), 107–122. doi:10.1016/S0022-1694(01)00514-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Descroix, L., et al., 2009. Spatio-temporal variability of hydrological regimes around the boundaries between Sahelian and Sudanian areas of West Africa: A synthesis. Journal of Hydrology, 375, 90–102. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.12.012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ehsanzadeh, E. and Adamowski, K., 2007. Detection of trends in low flows across Canada. Canadian Water Resources Journal, 32, 251–264. doi:10.4296/cwrj3204251
   Google Scholar
• Ehsanzadeh, E. and Adamowski, K., 2010. Trends in timing of low stream flows in Canada: impact of autocorrelation and long term persistence. Hydrological Processes, 24 (8), 970–980. doi:10.1002/hyp.7533
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fleming, S.W., et al., 2010. Pacific decadal oscillation and the hydroclimatology of western Canada—review and prospects. Canadian Water Resources Journal, 35 (1), 1–28. doi:10.4296/cwrj3501001
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gachon, L., et al., 2007. Groupe de travail II—Variabilité, extrêmes et changements climatiques au Sahel: de l’observation à la modélisation. Rapport des contributions canadiennes au projet ACDI—CILSS (#A030978-002); Appui aux capacités d’adaptation aux changements climatiques: Environnement Canada (éditeur), tome II, p. 209.
   Google Scholar
• Gachon, P., et al., 2005. A first evaluation of the strength and weaknesses of statistical downscaling methods for simulating extremes over various regions of Eastern Canada. Montréal: EC (éditeur), 209.
   Google Scholar
• Hubert, P., 2005. Sahel: La sécheresse est finie. Sources Nouvelles, Actualités du secteur eau et assainissement. Edition spéciale. 16.
   Google Scholar
• Hubert, P. and Carbonnel, J.P., 1987. Approche statistique de l’aridification de l’Afrique de l’Ouest. Journal of Hydrology, 95, 165–183. doi:10.1016/0022-1694(87)90123-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubert, P., Carbonnel, J.P., and Chaouche, A., 1989. Segmentation des séries hydrométéorologiques. Application à des séries de précipitations et de débits de l’Afrique de l’Ouest. Journal of Hydrology, 110, 349–367. doi:10.1016/0022-1694(89)90197-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hubert, P., et al., 1998. La procédure de segmentation, 10 ans après. In: E. Servat, et al., eds., Water resources variability in Africa during the XXth century. Proceedings Abidjan conf. Wallingford, UK: International Association of Hydrological Sciences, IAHS Publ. 252, 267–273.
   Google Scholar
• Issa Lélé, M.A. and Lamb, P.J., 2010. Variability of intertropical front (ITF) and rainfall over West African Soudano-Sahel. Journal of Climate, 23, 3984–4004. doi:10.1175/2010JCLI3277.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Karl, T.R., Neville, N., and Ghazi, A., 1999. CLIVAR/GCOS/WMO Workshop on indices and indicators for climate extremes: workshop summary. Climatic Change, 42, 3–7. doi:10.1023/A:1005491526870
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kendall, M.G., 1975. Rank correlation methods. London: Charles Griffin and Company.
   Google Scholar
• Khaliq, M.N., Ouarda, T.B.M.J., and Gachon, P., 2009a. Identification of temporal trends in annual and seasonal low flows occurring in Canadian rivers: the effect of short- and long-term persistence. Journal of Hydrology, 369 (1–2), 183–197. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.02.045
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khaliq, M.N., et al., 2008. Temporal evolution of low‐flow regimes in Canadian rivers. Water Resources Research, 44, W08436. doi:10.1029/2007WR006132
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khaliq, M.N., et al., 2009b. Identification of hydrological trends in the presence of serial and cross correlations: a review of selected methods and their application to annual flow regimes of Canadian rivers. Journal of Hydrology, 368 (1–4), 117–130. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.01.035
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klein Tank, A.M.G. and Können, G.P., 2003. Trends in indices of daily temperature and precipitation extremes in Europe: 1946–1999. Journal of Climate, 16, 3665–3680. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016<3665:TIIODT>2.0.CO;2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Knippertz, P., et al., 2011. Ultra-low clouds over the Southern West African Monsoon Region. Geophysical Research Letters, 38. doi:10.1029/2011GL049278
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lebel, T. and Ali, A., 2009. Recent trends in the Central and Western Sahel rainfall regime (1990–2007). Journal of Hydrology, 375, 52–64. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.11.030
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leroux, M., 1970. La dynamique des précipitations en Afrique Occidentale Publ. Dir. Expl. Mét. ASECNA, Série I, no 23, Dakar, p. 121.
   Google Scholar
• Leroux, M., 1996. La dynamique du temps et du climat. Paris: Masson, Enseignement des sciences de la terre, 310.
   Google Scholar
• Leroux, M., 2007. Les échanges méridiens commandent les changements climatiques. Séminaire de travail : Evolution du climat, Académie des sciences Paris, p 12.
   Google Scholar
• Lettenmaier, D.P., Wood, E.F., and Wallis, J.R., 1994. Hydro-climatological trends in the continental United States, 1948–1998. Journal of Climate, 7, 586–607. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1994)007<0586:HCTITC>2.0.CO;2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lins, H.F. and Slack, J.R., 1999. Streamflow trends in the United States. Geophysical Research Letters, 26 (2), 227–230. doi:10.1029/1998GL900291
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mann, H.B., 1945. Nonparametric tests against trend. Econometrica, 13, 245–259. doi:10.2307/1907187
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Manton, M.J., et al., 2001. Trends in extreme daily rainfall and temperature in southeast Asia and the South Pacific: 1961–1998. International Journal of Climatology, 21, 269–284. doi:10.1002/joc.610
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marengo Josée, A., 1995. Variations and change in South American streamflow. Climatic Change, 31, 99–117. doi:10.1007/BF01092983
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mohino, E., Janicot, S., and Bader, J., 2011. Sahel rainfall and decadal to multi-decadal sea surface temperature variability. Climate Dynamics, 37, 419–440. doi:10.1007/s00382-010-0867-2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moore, G.W.K., Holdsworth, G., and Alverson, K., 2002. Climate change in the North Pacific region over the past three centuries. Nature, 420, 401–403. doi:10.1038/nature01229
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mougin, E., et al., 2009. The AMMA-CATCH Gourma observatory site in Mali: relating climatic variations to changes in vegetation, surface hydrology, fluxes and natural resources. Journal of Hydrology, 375, 14–33. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2009.06.045
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholson, S.E., 1981. Rainfall and atmospheric circulation during drought periods and wetter years in West Africa. Monthly Weather Review, 109 (10), 2191–2208. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1981)109<2191:RAACDD>2.0.CO;2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholson, S.E., 2005. On the question of the “recovery” of the rains in the West African Sahel. Journal of Arid Environment, 63, 615–641. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2005.03.004
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholson, S.E., 2009. A revised picture of the structure of the “monsoon” and land ITCZ over West Africa. Climate Dynamics, 32 (7–8), 1155–1171. doi:10.1007/s00382-008-0514-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nicholson, S.E., Some, B., and Kane, B., 2000. The influence of La Nina on African rainfall. International Journal of Climatology, 20, 2628–2640. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2000)013<2628:AAORRC>2.0.CO;2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ozer, P., et al., 2003. The Sahelian drought may have ended during the 1990s. La sécheresse sahélienne pourrait s’être terminée durant les années 1990. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 48, 489–492. doi:10.1623/hysj.48.3.489.45285
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paeth, H., et al., 2011. Meteorological characteristics and potential causes of the 2007 flood in sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Climatology, 31, 1908–1926. doi:10.1002/joc.2199
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paturel, J.E., et al., 1997a. Variabilité climatique et analyse de séries pluviométriques de longue durée en Afrique de l’Ouest et centrale non sahélienne. CR Acadamic Sciences. Paris, 325, 779–782.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paturel, J.E., et al., 1997b. Climatic variability in humid Africa along the Gulf of Guinea. Part 2: an integrated regional approach. Journal of Hydrology, 191, 16–36. doi:10.1016/S0022-1694(96)03069-7
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peterson, T.C., et al., 2001. Report on the activities of the working group on climate change detection and related reporters 1998–2001. WCDMP-47, WMO-TD 1071. OMM: Genève, 143.
   Google Scholar
• Sagna, P., 1993. Interférence des moyennes latitudes et des systèmes tropicaux en période hivernale en Afrique de l’Ouest. Nairobi, Kenya: Actes du colloque de la Société Météorologique Africaine février, 15.
   Google Scholar
• Salas, J.D., et al., 1980. Applied modeling of hydrologic time series. Littleton, CO: Water Resources Publication.
   Google Scholar
• Sarr, M.A., 2009. Évolution climatique récente et dynamique de la végétation par l’imagerie satellitaire (Ferlo, Sénégal). Thèse de Doctorat de l’Université Jean Moulin Lyon 3. Lyon: PUL, 400.
   Google Scholar
• Sen, P.K., 1968. Estimate of the regression coefficient based on Kendall’s tau. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 63, 1379–1389. doi:10.1080/01621459.1968.10480934
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toupet, C., 1996. La crise sahélienne. Revue Géographique De Lyon, 70 (3), 181–186. doi:10.3406/geoca.1995.4210
   Google Scholar
• Von Storch, H. and Navarra, A., 1995. Analysis of climate variability: applications of statistical techniques. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 77 (5), 227–249.
   Google Scholar
• Wang, G., et al., 2004. Decadal variability of rainfall in the Sahel: results from the coupled GENESIS-IBIS atmosphere-biosphere model. Climate Dynamics, 22, 625–637. doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0411-3
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wang, X.L. and Swail, V.R., 2001. Changes of extreme wave heights in northern hemisphere oceans and related atmospheric circulation regimes. Journal of Climate, 14 (10), 2204–2221. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014<2204:COEWHI>2.0.CO;2
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yue, S., et al., 2002. The influence of autocorrelation on the ability to detect trend in hydrological series. Hydrological Processes, 16, 1807–1829. doi:10.1002/hyp.1095
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yue, S. and Wang, C., 2004. Reply to comment by Xuebin Zhang and Francis Zwiers on ‘‘applicability of prewhitening to eliminate the influence of serial correlation on the Mann–Kendal test’’. Water Resources Research, 40, W03806. doi:10.1029/2003WR002547.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, X., et al., 2001. Trends in Canadian streamflow. Water Resources Research, 37 (4), 987–998. doi:10.1029/2000WR900357.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zhang, X. and Zwiers, F.W., 2004. Comment on applicability of prewhitening to eliminate the influence of serial correlation on the Mann–Kendall test. Water Resources Research, 40, W03805. doi:10.1029/2003WR002073.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• http://cccma.seos.uvic.ca/ETCCDMI/index.shtml: ETCCDMI: expert team on climate change detection monitoring and indices, visited March 5, 2011
   Google Scholar
• www.cru.uea.ac.uk/cru/projects/stardex: European project STARDEX: statistical and regional dynamical downscaling of extremes for European regions, visited March 5, 2011.
   Google Scholar