6,569
Views
46
CrossRef citations to date
0
Altmetric
Articles

Colonization with Chinese characteristics: politics of (in)security in Xinjiang and Tibet

ORCID Icon

References

  • Allen, R. L. 2005. “Reassessing the Internal (Neo) Colonialism Theory.” The Black Scholar 35 (1): 2–11. doi: 10.1080/00064246.2005.11413289
  • Anand, D. 2009. “Strategic Hypocrisy: The British Imperial Scripting of Tibet’s Geopolitical Identity.” The Journal of Asian Studies 68 (1): 227–252. doi: 10.1017/S0021911809000011
  • Anand, D. 2010. “The Next Dalai Lama: China has a Choice.” The Guardian, December 15. Accessed 18 March 2017. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2010/dec/15/china-dalai-lama-exile-tibetans.
  • Anand, D. 2012. “China and India: ‘Postcolonial Informal Empires in the Emerging Global Order’.” Rethinking Marxism 24 (1): 68–86. doi: 10.1080/08935696.2012.635039
  • Barbour, B., and R. Jones. 2013. “Criminals, Terrorists, and Outside Agitators: Representational Tropes of the ‘Other’ in the 5 July Xinjiang, China Riots.” Geopolitics 18 (1): 95–114. doi: 10.1080/14650045.2012.691140
  • BBC. 2017. “China Uighurs: Xinjiang Ban on Long Beards and Veils.” April 1, 2017. Accessed 31 March 2018. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-39460538.
  • Becquelin, N. 2004. “Staged Development in Xinjiang.” The China Quarterly 178: 358–378. doi: 10.1017/S0305741004000219
  • Blauner, R. 1972. Racial Oppression in America. New York: Harper and Row.
  • Blum, S. D. 2002. “Margins and Centers: A Decade of Publishing on China’s Ethnic Minorities.” The Journal of Asian Studies 61 (4): 1287–1310. doi: 10.2307/3096443
  • Bovingdon, G. 2004. “Autonomy in Xinjiang: Han Nationalist Imperatives and Uyghur Discontent.” Policy Studies 11. Washington, DC: East West Centre. Accessed 10 August 2017. http://www.eastwestcenter.org/publications/autonomy-xinjiang-han-nationalist-imperatives-and-uyghur-discontent.
  • Bovingdon, G. 2010. The Uyghurs: Strangers in Their Own Land. New York: Columbia University Press.
  • Buckley, M. 2014. Meltdown in Tibet. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Bulag, U. E. 2002. The Mongols at China’s Edge: History and the Politics of National Unity. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
  • Callahan, W. A. 2004. “National Insecurities: Humiliation, Salvation, and Chinese Nationalism.” Alternatives: Global, Local, Political 29: 199–218. doi: 10.1177/030437540402900204
  • Cao, H. 2010. “Urban–Rural Income Disparity and Urbanization: What Is the Role of Spatial Distribution of Ethnic Groups? A Case Study of Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in Western China.” Regional Studies 44 (8): 965–982. doi: 10.1080/00343400903401550
  • Casanova, P. G. 1965. “Internal Colonialism and National Development.” Studies in Comparative International Development 1 (4): 27–37. doi: 10.1007/BF02800542
  • Central Tibetan Administration. n.d.  http://tibet.net/.
  • Chávez, J. R. 2011. “Aliens in Their Native Lands: The Persistence of Internal Colonial Theory.” Journal of World History 22 (4): 785–809. doi: 10.1353/jwh.2011.0123
  • China Daily. 2012. “Xinjiang to crack down on ‘three evil forces’.” March 6, 2012. Accessed 20 March 2018. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2012-03/06/content_14766900.htm.
  • China Tibetology Research Centre. 2009. Report on the Economic and Social Development of Tibet. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.
  • Clarke, M. 2007. “‘China’s Internal Security Dilemma and the “Great Western Development”: The Dynamics of Integration, Ethnic Nationalism and Terrorism in Xinjiang’.” Asian Studies Review 31 (3): 323–342. doi: 10.1080/10357820701621350
  • Clarke, M. 2010. “Widening the Net: China’s Anti-Terror Laws and Human Rights in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.” The International Journal of Human Rights 14 (4): 542–558. doi: 10.1080/13642980802710855
  • Cliff, T. 2012. “The Partnership of Stability in Xinjiang: State-Society Interactions Following the July 2009 Unrest.” The China Journal 68: 79–105. doi: 10.1086/666581
  • Cosmo, N. D. 1998. “Qing Colonial Administration in Inner Asia.” The International History Review 20 (2): 287–309. doi: 10.1080/07075332.1998.9640824
  • Cui, S., and J. Li. 2011. “(De)Securitizing Frontier Security in China: Beyond the Positive and Negative Debate.” Cooperation and Conflict 46 (2): 144–165. doi: 10.1177/0010836711406348
  • Das, M. 1978. “Internal Colonialism and the Movement for Bangladesh: A Sociological Analysis.” Contributions to Asian Studies 12: 93–104.
  • Dikötter, F. 1992. The Discourse of Race in China. London: C. Hurst.
  • Dillon, M. 1995. Xinjiang: Ethnicity, Separatism and Control in Chinese Central Asia. University of Durham: Durham East Asian Papers. 1.
  • Dreyer, J. T. 1976. China’s Forty Millions: Minority Nationalities and National Integration in the People’s Republic of China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Dreyer, J. T. 2003. “Economic Development in Tibet Under the People's Republic of China.” Journal of Contemporary China 12 (36): 411–430. doi: 10.1080/10670560305470
  • Duara, P. 1995. Rescuing History From the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
  • Fischer, A. M. 2008. “‘Population Invasion’ Versus Urban Exclusion in the Tibetan Areas of Western China.” Population and Development Review 34 (4): 631–662. doi: 10.1111/j.1728-4457.2008.00244.x
  • Fischer, A. M. 2013. The Disempowered Development of Tibet in China: A Study in the Economics of Marginalisation. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
  • Gladney, D. C. 1994. “Representing Nationality in China: Reconfiguring Majority/Minority Identities.” The Journal of Asian Studies 53 (1): 92–123. doi: 10.2307/2059528
  • Gladney, D. C. 1998. “Internal Colonialism and the Uyghur Nationality: Chinese Nationalism and its Subaltern Subjects.” Cahiers d'Etudes sur la Méditerranée Orientale et le monde Turco-Iranien. 25. Accessed 10 March 2017. http://cemoti.revues.org/48.
  • Gladney, D. C. 2004. Dislocating China: Reflections on Muslims, Minorities, and Other Subaltern Subjects. London: Hurst & Company.
  • Goodman, D. S. G. 2004. “The Campaign to “Open up the West”: National, Provincial-Level and Local Perspectives.” The China Quarterly 178: 317–334. doi: 10.1017/S0305741004000190
  • Goodman, B., and D. S. G. Goodman. 2012. Twentieth-century Colonialism and China: Localities, the Everyday, and the World. London: Routledge.
  • Gouldner, A. W. 1978. “Stalinism: A Study of Internal Colonialism.” Telos 34: 5–48.
  • Gries, P. H. 2005. China’s New Nationalism: Pride, Politics, and Diplomacy. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Halper, L. B., and S. Halper. 2014. Tibet: An Unfinished Story. London: C. Hurst & Co.
  • Harrell, S., ed. 1994. Cultural Encounters on China’s Ethnic Frontiers. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.
  • Heberer, T. 1989. China and its National Minorities: Autonomy or Assimilation? London: Routledge.
  • Heberer, T. 2001. “Old Tibet or a Hell on Earth? The Myth of Tibet and Tibetans in Chinese Art and Propaganda.” In Imagining Tibet: Perceptions, Projections, and Fantasies, edited by T. Dodin, and H. Rather, 111–150. London: Hurst and Blackett.
  • Hechter, M. 1975. Internal Colonialism. The Celtic Fringe in British National Development, 1536-1966. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
  • Hechter, M., and M. Levi. 1979. “The Comparative Analysis of Ethnoregional Movements.” Ethnic and Racial Studies 2 (3): 260–274. doi: 10.1080/01419870.1979.9993268
  • Hillman, B., and L.-A. Henfry. 2006. “Macho Minority: Masculinity and Ethnicity on the Edge of Tibet.” Modern China 32 (2): 251–272. doi: 10.1177/0097700405286186
  • Hillman, B., and G. Tuttle, eds. 2016. Conflict and Protest in Tibet and Xinjiang: Unrest in China’s West. New York: Columbia University Press.
  • Hind, R. J. 1984. “The Internal Colonial Concept.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 26 (3): 543–568. doi: 10.1017/S0010417500011130
  • Holdstock, N. 2015. China’s Forgotten People: Xinjiang, Terror, and the Chinese State. London: I.B. Tauris.
  • Horvath, R. J. 1972. “A Definition of Colonialism.” Current Anthropology 13 (1): 45–57. doi: 10.1086/201248
  • Howe, S. 2002. Empire: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Howland, D. 2011. “The Dialectics of Chauvinism: Minority Nationalities and Territorial Sovereignty in Mao Zedong’s New Democracy.” Modern China 37 (2): 170–201. doi: 10.1177/0097700410382082
  • Information Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China. 1992. White Paper 1992: Tibet – Its Ownership and Human Rights Situation. Accessed 20 March 2017. http://www.china-un.org/eng/gyzg/xizang/t418894.htm.
  • Information Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China. 2003. White Paper History and Development of Xinjiang. Accessed 20 March 2018. http://en.people.cn/200305/26/eng20030526_117240.shtml.
  • Information Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China. 2009a. Fifty Years of Democratic Reform in Tibet. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.
  • Information Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China. 2009b. White Paper Development and Progress in Xinjiang. Accessed 20 March 2018. http://www.china.org.cn/government/whitepaper/node_7077515.htm.
  • International Campaign for Tibet. N.d. https://www.savetibet.org/.
  • Jacobs, J. 2008. “How Chinese Turkestan Became Chinese: Visualizing Zhang Zhizhong’s “Tianshan Pictorial” and Xinjiang Youth Song and Dance Troupe.” The Journal of Asian Studies 67 (2): 545–591. doi: 10.1017/S0021911808000697
  • Jacobs, J. 2016. Xinjiang and the Modern Chinese State. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
  • Jing Y. 2016. “Tibet, Xinjiang, and China’s Strong State Complex.” The Diplomat, July 28. Accessed 20 July 2017. http://thediplomat.com/2016/07/tibet-xinjiang-and-chinas-strong-state-complex/.
  • Joniak-Lüthi, A. 2015. The Han: China’s Diverse Majority. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
  • Kanat, K. B. 2012. “‘War on Terror’ as a Diversionary Strategy: Personifying Minorities as Terrorists in the People’s Republic of China.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 32 (4): 507–527. doi: 10.1080/13602004.2012.746179
  • Kerr, D., and L. C. Swinton. 2008. “China, Xinjiang, and the Transnational Security of Central Asia.” Critical Asian Studies 40 (1): 89–112. doi: 10.1080/14672710801959174
  • Khetsun, T. 2009. Memories of Life in Lhasa Under Chinese Ruke. Translated by Matthew Akester. New Delhi: Penguin.
  • Klieger, P. C. 1992. Tibetan Nationalism: The Role of Patronage in the Accomplishment of National Identity. Meerut: Archana Publications.
  • Lafitte, G. 2013. Spoiling Tibet: China and Resource Nationalism on the Roof of the World. London: Sed.
  • Leibold, J. 2007. Reconfiguring Chinese Nationalism: How the Qing Frontier and its Indigenes Became Chinese. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Leibold, J. 2013. Ethnic Policy in China: Is Reform Inevitable? Policy Studies 68. Honolulu: East West Centre.
  • Li, J. 2016. Tibet in Agony. Translated by Susan Wilf. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
  • Loring, B. 2014. “‘Colonizers with Party Cards’: Soviet Internal Colonialism in Central Asia, 1917-39.” Kritika: Explorations in Russia and Eurasian History 15 (1): 77–102. doi: 10.1353/kri.2014.0012
  • Luo, L. 2008. The Economy of Tibet: Transformation From a Traditional to a Modern Economy. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.
  • Mackerras, C. 2003. China’s Ethnic Minorities and Globalisation. London: RoutledgeCurzon.
  • Makley, C. E. 2002. “On the Edge of Respectability: Sexual Politics in China’s Tibet.” Positions: East Asia Cultures Critique 10 (3): 575–630. doi: 10.1215/10679847-10-3-575
  • Moses, A. D. 2008. “Empire, Colony, Genocide: Keywords and the Philosophy of History.” In Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History, edited by A. Dirk Moses, 3–54. Oxford: Berghahn Books.
  • Mullaney, T. S., J. Leibold, S. Gros, and E. V. Bussche. 2012. Critical Han Studies: The History, Representation, and Identity of China’s Majority. Berkeley: University of California Press.
  • Murphy, E. C. 1991. “Israel and the Occupied Territories of the West Bank and Gaza Strip: A Case of Internal Colonialism.” PhD thesis, Vol II. University of Exeter.
  • Oakes, T. 2000. “China’s Provincial Identities: Reviving Regionalism and Reinventing ‘Chineseness’.” The Journal of Asian Studies 59 (3): 667–692. doi: 10.2307/2658947
  • O’Brien, D. 2011. “The Mountains are High and the Emperor is Far Away: An Examination of the Ethnic Violence in Xinjiang.” International Journal of China Studies 2 (2): 389–405.
  • Osterhammel, J. 1997. Colonialism: A Theoretical Overview. Translated by Shelley L. Frisch. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers.
  • Pemba, T. Y. 2017. White Crane, Lend Me Your Wings: A Tibet Tale of Love and War. New Delhi: Niyogi Books.
  • Perdue, P. C. 2005. China Marches West: The Wing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
  • Purbrick, M. 2017. “Maintaining a Unitary State: Counter-Terrorism, Separatism, and Extremism in Xinjiang and China.” Asian Affairs 48 (2): 236–256. doi: 10.1080/03068374.2017.1313595
  • Radnitz, S., and S. Roberts, eds. 2013. “Why the Carrot Isn’t Working, Either.” Foreign Policy, November 11. Accessed 24 August 2017. http://foreignpolicy.com/2013/11/11/why-the-carrot-isnt-working-either/.
  • Sautman, B. 2000. “Is Xinjiang an Internal Colony?” Inner Asia 2 (2): 239–271. doi: 10.1163/146481700793647788
  • Sautman, B. 2006a. “Colonialism, Genocide, and Tibet.” Asian Ethnicity 7 (3): 243–265. doi: 10.1080/14631360600926949
  • Sautman, B. 2006b. “‘Demographic Annihilation’ and Tibet.” In Contemporary Tibet: Politics, Development, and Society in a Disputed Region, edited by B. Sautman, and J. T. Dreyer, 230–257. New York: M. E. Sharpe.
  • Saxer, M., and J. Zhang. 2014. The Art of Neighbouring: Making Relations Across China’s Borders. Amsterdam University Press: Amsterdam.
  • Schein, L. 1997. “Gender and Internal Orientalism in China.” Modern China 23 (1): 69–98. doi: 10.1177/009770049702300103
  • Seymour, J. D. 2000. “Xinjiang’s Production and Construction Corps, and the Sinification of Eastern Turkestan.” Inner Asia 2 (2): 171–193. doi: 10.1163/146481700793647805
  • Shakya, T. 1999. The Dragon in the Land of Snows. A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947. London: Pimlico.
  • Shokdun. 2016. The Division of Heaven and Earth: On Tibet’s Peaceful Revolution. London: C. Hurst & Co.
  • Smith, W. W. 2009. Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations. New Delhi: Rupa.
  • Smith Finley, J. 2011. “‘No Rights Without Duties’: Minzu Pingdeng [National Equality] in Xinjiang Since the 1997 Ghulja Disturbances.” Inner Asia 13 (1): 73–96. doi: 10.1163/000000011797372940
  • Smith Finley, J. 2013. The Art of Symbolic Resistance: Uyghur Identities and Uyghur-Han Relations in Contemporary Xinjiang. Leiden: Brill.
  • Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2012. “Colonialism.” Originally published 2006. Accessed 15 March 2017. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/colonialism/.
  • Starr, S. F. 2004. Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland. London: Routledge.
  • Steele, L., and R. Kuo. 2007. “Terrorism in Xinjiang?” Ethnopolitics 6 (1): 1–19. doi: 10.1080/17449050600917072
  • Thampi, M., ed. 2005. India and China in the Colonial World. New Delhi: Social Sciences Press.
  • Thomas, N. 1994. Colonialism’s Culture: Anthropology, Travel and Government. London: Polity Press.
  • Tibet Justice Centre. N.d. http://www.tibetjustice.org/materials/index.html.
  • Topgyal, T. 2016. China and Tibet: The Perils of Insecurity. London: C. Hurst & Co.
  • Topgyal, T. 2017. “The Securitisation of Tibetan Buddhism in Communist China.” Politics and Religion Journal 6 (2): 217–249.
  • Trédaniel, M., and P. K. Lee. 2018. “Explaining the Chinese Framing of the “Terrorist” Violence in Xinjiang: Insights From Securitization Theory.” Nationalities Papers 46 (1): 177–195. doi: 10.1080/00905992.2017.1351427
  • Tursun, N. 2018. “Factors and Challenges of Uyghur Nationalism in the Early Twentieth Century.” In The Uyghur Community: Diaspora, Identity and Geopolitics, edited by G. K. Ercilasun, and K. Ercilasun, 27–58. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Unger, J., ed. 1996. Chinese Nationalism. London: Routledge.
  • Uyghur Human Rights Project. 2012. “Uyghur Homeland, Chinese Frontier: The Xinjiang Work Forum and Centrally Led Development.” Accessed 31 March 2018. https://uhrp.org/press-release/new-report-uhrp-uyghur-homeland-chinese-frontier-xinjiang-work-forum-and-centrally-led.
  • Uyghur Human Rights Project. N.d. Accessed 18 March 2017. http://uhrp.org/.
  • Wang, L., and T. Shakya. 2009. The Struggle for Tibet. London: Verso.
  • Wang, M., and L. Yang, eds. 2005. Record of 24 Hours in Tibet. Hong Kong: China Association for Preservation & Development of Tibetan Culture, Hong Kong China Tourism Press.
  • Whalen-Bridge, J. 2015. Tibet on Fire: Buddhism, Protest, and the Rhetoric of Self-Immolation. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Wiens, H. J. 1966. “Cultivation Development and Expansion in China’s Colonial Realm in Central Asia.” The Journal of Asian Studies 26 (1): 67–88. doi: 10.2307/2051832
  • Wolff, D. 2010. Tibet Unconquered: An Epic Struggle for Freedom. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Wu, X., and X. Song. 2014. “Ethnic Stratification Amid China’s Economic Transition: Evidence From the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region.” Social Science Research 44: 158–172. doi: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2013.12.002
  • Yeh, E. 2014. Taming Tibet: Landcape Transformation and the Gift of Chinese Development. New Delhi: Foundation Books.
  • Zenz, A. 2018. “China’s Securitization Drive in Tibet and Xinjiang.” China Policy Institute: Analysis. Accessed 20 March 2018. https://cpianalysis.org/2018/02/14/chinas-securitization-drive-in-tibet-and-xinjiang/.
  • Zenz, A., and J. Leibold. 2017. “Xinjiang’s Rapidly Evolving Security State.” China Brief. 17, 4. Accessed 8 August 2017. https://jamestown.org/program/xinjiangs-rapidly-evolving-security-state/.
  • Zhao, S. 2004. A Nation-State by Construction: Dynamics of Modern Chinese Nationalism. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
  • Zhu, Y., and D. Blachford. 2016. “‘Old Bottle, New Wine’? Xinjiang Bingtuan and China’s Ethnic Frontier Governance.” Journal of Contemporary China 25 (97): 25–40. doi: 10.1080/10670564.2015.1060760

Reprints and Corporate Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

To request a reprint or corporate permissions for this article, please click on the relevant link below:

Academic Permissions

Please note: Selecting permissions does not provide access to the full text of the article, please see our help page How do I view content?

Obtain permissions instantly via Rightslink by clicking on the button below:

If you are unable to obtain permissions via Rightslink, please complete and submit this Permissions form. For more information, please visit our Permissions help page.