A meta-cognitive approach to doping in sports: The effects of thought validation on attitudes related to doping

References

• Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2), 179–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Backhouse, S., Collins, C., Defoort, Y., McNamee, M., Parkinson, A., & Sauer, M. (2014). Study on doping prevention: A map of legal, regulatory, and prevention practice provisions in EU 28. Publications Office of the European Union/European Commission on Sport.
   Google Scholar
• Backhouse, S., Whitaker, L., Patterson, L., Erickson, K., & McKenna, J. (2016). Social psychology of doping in sport: A mixed-studies narrative synthesis. World Anti-Doping Agency.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. In W. M. Kurtines & J. L. Gewirtz (Eds.), Handbook of moral behavior and development (Vol. 1, pp. 45–103). Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy. The exercise of control. Freeman.
   Google Scholar
• Barkoukis, V., Kartali, K., Lazuras, L., & Tsorbatzoudis, H. (2016). Evaluation of an anti-doping intervention for adolescents: Findings from a school-based study. Sport Management Review, 19(1), 23–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2015.12.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barkoukis, V., Lazuras, L., & Harris, P. R. (2015). The effects of self-affirmation manipulation on decision making about doping use in elite athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 16(2), 175–181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.02.003
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barkoukis, V., Lazuras, L., Tsorbatzoudis, H., & Rodafinos, A. (2013). Motivational and social cognitive predictors of doping intentions in elite sports: An integrated approach. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 23(5), 330–340. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.12068
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briñol, P., & DeMarree, K. G. (Eds.). (2012). Social meta-cognition. Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Briñol, P., & Petty, R. E. (2003). Overt head movements and persuasion: A self-validation analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(6), 1123–1139. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.84.6.1123
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briñol, P., & Petty, R. E. (2009). Source factors in persuasion: A self-validation approach. European Review of Social Psychology, 20(1), 49–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280802643640
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briñol, P., & Petty, R. E. (2012). The history of attitudes and persuasion research. In A. Kruglanski & W. Stroebe (Eds.), Handbook of the history of social psychology (pp. 285–320). Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Briñol, P., & Petty, R. E. (2015). Elaboration and validation processes: Implications for media attitude change. Media Psychology, 18(3), 267–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2015.1008103
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briñol, P., Petty, R. E., & Barden, J. (2007). Happiness versus sadness as determinants of thought confidence in persuasion: A self-validation analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(5), 711–727. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.711
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Briñol, P., Petty, R. E., & Tormala, Z. L. (2004). Self-validation of cognitive responses to advertisements. The Journal of Consumer Research, 30(4), 559–573. https://doi.org/10.1086/380289
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cacioppo, J. T., Harkins, S. G., & Petty, R. E. (1981). The nature of attitudes and cognitive responses and their relationships to behavior. In R. Petty, T. Ostrom, & T. Brock (Eds.), Cognitive responses in persuasion (pp. 31–54). Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(1), 116–131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaiken, S. L., Liberman, A., & Eagly, A. H. (1989). Heuristic and systematic processing within and beyond the persuasion context. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 212–252). Guilford.
   Google Scholar
• Chaiken, S. L., & Trope, Y. (Eds.). (1999). Dual process theories in social psychology (pp. 41–72). Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Chan, D. K. C., Dimmock, J. A., Donovan, R. J., Hardcastle, S. J., & Lentillon-Kaestner, V. (2014). Self-determined motivation in sport predicts anti-doping motivation and intention: A perspective from the trans-contextual model. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 18(3), 315–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2014.04.001
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, J. K., Thiem, K. C., & Kang, S. (2017). Positive stereotype validation: The bolstering effects of activating positive stereotypes after intellectual performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 43(12), 1630–1642. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167217723324
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clark, J. K., Wegener, D. T., Sawicki, V., Petty, R. E., & Briñol, P. (2013). Evaluating the message or the messenger? Implications for self-validation in persuasion. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(12), 1571–1584. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213499238
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen, J., & Cohen, P. (1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• DeMarree, K. G., Loersch, C. A., Briñol, P., Petty, R. E., Payne, B. K., & Rucker, D. D. (2012). From primed construct to motivated behavior: Validation processes in goal pursuit. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38(12), 1659–1670. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167212458328
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dodge, T., Stock, M., & Litt, D. (2013). Judgments about illegal performance-enhancing substances: Reasoned, reactive, or both? Journal of Health Psychology, 18(7), 962–971. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105312445079
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Donovan, R. J. (2009). Towards an understanding of factors influencing athletes’ attitudes towards performance enhancing technologies: Implications for ethics education. In T. H. Murray, K. J. Maschke, & A. A. Wasunna (Eds.), Performance-enhancing technologies in sports: Ethical, conceptual, and scientific issues (pp. 283–317). Johns Hopkins University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Donovan, R. J., Eggar, G., Kapernick, V., & Mendoza, J. (2002). A conceptual framework for achieving performance enhancing drug compliance in sport. Sports Medicine, 32(4), 269–284. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200232040-00005
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dunlosky, J., & Metcalfe, J. (2009). Metacognition. Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1992). The psychology of attitudes. Harcourt Brace Janovich.
   Google Scholar
• Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Beliefs, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Addison-Wesley.
   Google Scholar
• Gascó, M., Briñol, P., Santos, D., Petty, R. E., & Horcajo, J. (2018). Where did this thought come from? A self-validation analysis of the perceived origin of thoughts. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44(11), 1615–1628. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167218775696
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg, L., Elliot, D. L., Clarke, G. N., MacKinnon, D. P., Zoref, L., Moe, E. L., Green, C., & Y Wolf, S. L. (1996). The Adolescents Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids (ATLAS) prevention program: Background and results of a model intervention. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 150(7), 713–721. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.1996.02170320059010
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Greenwald, A. G. (1968). Cognitive learning, cognitive response to persuasion, and attitude change. In A. G. Greenwald, T. C. Brock, & T. M. Ostrom (Eds.), Psychological foundations of attitudes (pp. 147-170). New York: Academic Press.
   Google Scholar
• Gucciardi, D. F., Jalleh, G., & Donovan, R. J. (2010). Does social desirability influence the relationship between doping attitudes and doping susceptibility in athletes? Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11(6), 479–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.06.002
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hauw, D., & McNamee, M. (2015). A critical analysis of three psychological research programs of doping behaviour. Psychology of Sport & Exercise, 16(2), 140–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.03.010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. The Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Horcajo, J., & De la Vega, R. (2014). Changing doping-related attitudes in soccer players: How can we get stable and persistent changes? European Journal of Sport Science, 14(8), 839–846. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2014.905988
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horcajo, J., & De la Vega, R. (2016). La convicción en las actitudes relacionadas con el dopaje: Un estudio experimental con entrenadores de fútbol. [Conviction in doping-related attitudes: An experimental study with soccer coaches]. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 25(1), 57–64.https://www.rpd-online.com/article/view/v25-n1-horcajo-de-la-etal
   Google Scholar
• Horcajo, J., & Luttrell, A. (2016). The effects of elaboration on the strength of doping-related attitudes: Resistance to change and behavioral intentions. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 38(3), 236–246. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2015-0316
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horcajo, J., Paredes, B., Higuero, G., Briñol, P., & Petty, R. E. (2019). The effects of overt head movements on physical performance after positive versus negative self-talk. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 41(1), 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2018-0208
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horcajo, J., Petty, R. E., & Briñol, P. (2010). The effects of majority versus minority source status on persuasion: A self-validation analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99(3), 498–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018626
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horcajo, J., Santos, D., Guyer, J. J., & Moreno, L. (2019). Changing attitudes and intentions related to doping: An analysis of individual differences in need for cognition. Journal of Sports Sciences, 37(24), 2835–2843. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2019.1665876
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James, R., Naughton, D. P., & Petróczi, A. (2010). Promoting functional foods as acceptable alternatives to doping: Potential for information-based social marketing approach. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 7(1), 37. https://doi.org/10.1186/1550-2783-7-37
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, M. B. (2011). A systemic model of doping behavior. The American Journal of Psychology, 124(2), 151–162. https://doi.org/10.5406/amerjpsyc.124.2.0151
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Johnson, M. B. (2012). A systemic social-cognitive perspective on doping. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13(3), 317–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.12.007
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jost, J., Kruglanski, A., & Nelson, T. (1998). Social metacognition: An expansionist review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2(2), 137–154. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0202_6
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lazuras, L., Barkoukis, V., Loukovitis, A., Brand, R., Hudson, A., Mallia, L., Michaelides, M., Muzi, M., Petróczi, A., & Zelli, A. (2017). “I want it all, and i want it now”: lifetime prevalence and reasons for using and abstaining from controlled Performance and Appearance Enhancing Substances (PAES) among young exercisers and amateur athletes in five European countries. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 717. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00717.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazuras, L., Barkoukis, V., & Tsorbatzoudis, H. (2015). Toward an integrative model of doping use: An empirical study with adolescent athletes. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 37(1), 37–50. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2013-0232
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mazanov, J., & Huybers, T. (2010). An empirical model of athlete decisions to use performance-enhancing drugs: Qualitative evidence. Qualitative Research in Sport and Exercise, 2(3), 385–402. https://doi.org/10.1080/19398441.2010.517046
   Google Scholar
• Mottram, D., Chester, N., & Gibson, J. (2008). Evaluation of a tutor network system for a national education programme on drug-free sport. Sport in Society, 11(5), 560–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/17430430802196579
   Google Scholar
• Murray, T. H., Maschke, K. J., & Wasunna, A. A. (Eds.). (2009). Performance-enhancing technologies in sports: Ethical, conceptual, and scientific issues. Johns Hopkins University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Ntoumanis, N., Ng, J. Y., Barkoukis, V., & Backhouse, S. (2014). Personal and psychosocial predictors of doping use in physical activity settings: A meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 44(11), 1603–1624. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-014-0240-4
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paredes, B., Santos, D., Briñol, P., Gómez, A., & Petty, R. E. (in press). The impact of meta-cognitive certainty on the relationship between identity fusion and endorsement of extreme pro-group behavior. Self and Identity. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2019.1681498
   Google Scholar
• Petróczi, A. (2013). The doping mindset—Part I: Implications of the functional use theory on mental representations of doping. Performance Enhancement & Health, 2(4), 153–163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2014.06.001
   Google Scholar
• Petróczi, A., & Aidman, E. (2008). Psychological drivers in doping: The life-cycle model of performance enhancement. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention and Policy, 3(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1747-597X-3-7
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petróczi, A., & Nepusz, T. (2011). Methodological considerations regarding response bias effect in substance use research: Is correlation between the measured variables sufficient? Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy, 6(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/1747-597X-6-1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Briñol, P. (2012). The Elaboration Likelihood Model. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 224–245). Sage.
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Briñol, P. (2020). A process approach to influencing attitudes and changing behavior: Revisiting classic findings in persuasion and popular interventions. In J. Forgas, W. Crano, & K. Fiedler (Eds.), Applications of social psychology: How social psychology can contribute to real world problems (pp. 82–103). Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., Briñol, P., Teeny, J., & Horcajo, J. (2018). The elaboration likelihood model: Changing attitudes toward exercising and beyond. In B. Jackson, J. A. Dimmock, & J. Compton (Eds.), Persuasion and communication in sport, exercise, and physical activity (pp. 22–37). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., Briñol, P., & Tormala, Z. L. (2002). Thought confidence as a determinant of persuasion: The self-validation hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(5), 722–741. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.5.722
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., Briñol, P., Tormala, Z. L., & Wegener, D. T. (2007). The role of meta-cognition in social judgment. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: A handbook of basic principles (2nd ed., pp. 254–284). Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1981). Attitudes and persuasion: Classic and contemporary approaches. Wm. C. Brown.
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change. Springer/Verlag.
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., Fazio, R. H., & Briñol, P. (2009). Attitudes: Insights from the new implicit measures. Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., Haugtvedt, C. P., & Smith, S. M. (1995). Elaboration as a determinant of attitude strength: Creating attitudes that are persistent, resistant, and predictive of behavior. In R. E. Petty & J. A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences (pp. 93–130). Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., Ostrom, T. M., & Brock, T. C. (1981). Cognitive responses in persuasion. Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. T. (1998). Attitude change: Multiple roles for persuasion variables. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1, 4th ed., pp. 323–390). McGraw-Hill.
   Google Scholar
• Petty, R. E., & Wegener, D. T. (1999). The elaboration likelihood model: Current status and controversies. In S. Chaiken & Y. Trope (Eds.), Dual process theories in social psychology (pp. 41–72). Guilford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Requero, B., Santos, D., Paredes, B., Briñol, P., & Petty, R. E. (2020). Attitudes toward hiring people with disabilities: A meta-cognitive approach to persuasion. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 50(5), 276-288. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12658
   Google Scholar
• Santos, D., Briñol, P., Petty, R. E., Gandarillas, B., & Mateos, R. (2019). Trait aggressiveness predicting aggressive behavior: The moderating role of meta-cognitive certainty. Aggressive Behavior, 45(3), 255–264. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21815
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santos, D., & Rivera, R. (2015). The accessibility of justice-related concepts can validate intentions to punish. Social Influence, 10(3), 180–192. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2015.1031170
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sherman, J., Gawronski, B., & Trope, Y. (Eds.). (2014). Dual-process theories of the social mind. Guildford Press.
   Google Scholar
• Smith, A. C. T., Stewart, B., Oliver-Bennetts, S., McDonald, S., Ingerson, L., Anderson, A., & Graetz, F. (2010). Contextual influences and athlete attitudes to drugs in sport. Sport Management Review, 13(3), 181–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2010.01.008
   Google Scholar
• Stewart, B., & Smith, A. C. T. (2008). Drug use in sport: Implications for public policy. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 32(3), 278–298. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723508319716
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strelan, P., & Boeckmann, R. (2003). A new model for understanding performance-enhancing drug use by elite athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15(2), 176–183.  http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10413200305396
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Strelan, P., & Boeckmann, R. (2006). Why drug testing in elite sport does not work: Perceptual deterrence theory and the role of personal moral beliefs. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36(12), 2909–2934. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00135.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wagner, B. C., Briñol, P., & Petty, R. E. (2012). Dimensions of metacognitive judgement: Implications for attitude change. In P. Briñol & K. G. DeMarree (Eds.), Social metacognition (pp. 43–61). Psychology Press.
   Google Scholar