Where do we intervene to optimize sports systems? Leverage Points the way

References

• Abson, D. J., Fischer, J., Leventon, J., Newig, J., Schomerus, T., Vilsmaier, U., Von Wehrden, H., Abernethy, P., Ives, C. D., Jager, N. W., & Lang, D. J. (2017). Leverage points for sustainability transformation. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 46(1), 30–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-016-0800-y
   Google Scholar
• Aquilina, D., & Henry, I. (2010). Elite athletes and university education in Europe: A review of policy and practice in higher education in the European Union member states. International Journal of Sport Policy & Politics, 2(1), 25–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406941003634024
   Google Scholar
• Arghode, V. (2012). Qualitative and quantitative research: Paradigmatic differences. Global Education Journal, 2012(4).
   Google Scholar
• Bailey, S. J., Winyard, P., Vanhatalo, A., Blackwell, J. R., DiMenna, F. J., Wilkerson, D. P., Tarr, J., Benjamin, N., & Jones, A. M. (2009). Dietary nitrate supplementation reduces the O2 cost of low-intensity exercise and enhances tolerance to high-intensity exercise in humans. Journal of Applied Physiology, 107(4), 1144–1155. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00722.2009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bauer, H. H., Stokburger-Sauer, N. E., & Exler, S. (2008). Brand image and fan loyalty in professional team sport: A refined model and empirical assessment. Journal of Sport Management, 22(2), 205–226. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.22.2.205
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bradley, P. S., Sheldon, W., Wooster, B., Olsen, P., Boanas, P., & Krustrup, P. (2009). High-intensity running in English FA Premier league soccer matches. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27(2), 159–168, Article Pii 907362847. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410802512775
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Branch, J. D. (2003). Effect of creatine supplementation on body composition and performance: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 13(2), 198–226. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.13.2.198
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Braun, H., Koehler, K., Geyer, H., Kleinert, J., Mester, J., & Schanzer, W. (2009). Dietary supplement use among elite young German athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 19(1), 97–109. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.19.1.97
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brito, C. J., Roas, A., Brito, I. S. S., Marins, J. C. B., Cordova, C., & Franchini, E. (2012). Methods of body-mass reduction by combat sport athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 22(2), 89–97. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.22.2.89
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cermak, N. M., Gibala, M. J., & van Loon, L. J. C. (2012). Nitrate Supplementation’s improvement of 10-km time-trial performance in trained cyclists. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 22(1), 64–71. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.22.1.64
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cilliers, P. (2002). Complexity and postmodernism: Understanding complex systems. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Close, G. L., Kasper, A. M., & Morton, J. P. (2019). From paper to podium: Quantifying the translational potential of performance nutrition research. Sports Medicine, 49(S1), 25–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-1005-2
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Collins, L., & Collins, D. (2019). The role of ‘pracademics’ in education and development of adventure sport professionals. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 19(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/14729679.2018.1483253
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Côté, J., & Hancock, D. J. (2016). Evidence-based policies for youth sport programmes. International Journal of Sport Policy & Politics, 8(1), 51–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2014.919338
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coutts, A. J. (2016). Working fast and working slow: The benefits of embedding research in high performance sport. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 11(1), 1–2. http://doi.org/10.1123/IJSPP.2015-0781
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crompton, J. L. (1995). Economic impact analysis of sports facilities and events: Eleven sources of misapplication. Journal of Sport Management, 9(1), 14–35. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.9.1.14
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Dios Tena, J., & Forrest, D. (2007). Within-season dismissal of football coaches: Statistical analysis of causes and consequences. European Journal of Operational Research, 181(1), 362–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2006.05.024
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dekker, S. (2016). Drift into failure: From hunting broken components to understanding complex systems. CRC Press.
   Google Scholar
• Dessì, D., Osborne, F., Recupero, D. R., Buscaldi, D., & Motta, E. (2021). Generating knowledge graphs by employing natural language processing and machine learning techniques within the scholarly domain. Future Generation Computer Systems, 116, 253–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2020.10.026
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dimeo, P., & Møller, V. (2018). The anti-doping crisis in sport: Causes, consequences, solutions. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Ekstrand, J., Bengtsson, H., Waldén, M., Davison, M., Khan, K. M., & Hägglund, M. (2022). Hamstring injury rates have increased during recent seasons and now constitute 24% of all injuries in men’s professional football: The UEFA Elite Club injury study from 2001/02 to 2021/22. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 57(5), 292–298. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2021-105407
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flores, R., Forrest, D., & Tena, J. D. (2012). Decision taking under pressure: Evidence on football manager dismissals in Argentina and their consequences. European Journal of Operational Research, 222(3), 653–662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejor.2012.03.033
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster, J. G., Rzhetsky, A., & Evans, J. A. (2015). Tradition and innovation in scientists’ research strategies. American Sociological Review, 80(5), 875–908. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122415601618
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gladden, J. M., & Funk, D. C. (2002). Developing an understanding of brand associations in team sport: Empirical evidence from consumers of professional sport. Journal of Sport Management, 16(1), 54–81. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsm.16.1.54
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gordon, G. (2009). Sports betting: Law and policy. A UK perspective. The International Sports Law Journal, (3–4), 127–132.
   Google Scholar
• Goss, C. S., Greenshields, J. T., Noble, T. J., & Chapman, R. F. (2022). A narrative analysis of the progression in the top 100 marathon, half-marathon, and 10-km road race times from 2001 to 2019. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 54(2), 345–352. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0000000000002798
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grix, J., Brannagan, P. M., Wood, H., & Wynne, C. (2017). State strategies for leveraging sports mega-events: Unpacking the concept of ‘legacy’. International Journal of Sport Policy & Politics, 9(2), 203–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2017.1316761
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grix, J., & Carmichael, F. (2012). Why do governments invest in elite sport? A polemic. International Journal of Sport Policy & Politics, 4(1), 73–90. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2011.627358
   Google Scholar
• Hoogkamer, W., Kram, R., & Arellano, C. J. (2017). How biomechanical improvements in running economy could break the 2-hour marathon barrier. Sports Medicine, 47(9), 1739–1750. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0708-0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hortobágyi, T., Scott, K., Lambert, J., Hamilton, G., & Tracy, J. (1999). Cross-education of muscle strength is greater with stimulated than voluntary contractions. Motor Control, 3(2), 205–219. https://doi.org/10.1123/mcj.3.2.205
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kayser, B. (2018). What might a partially relaxed anti-doping regime in professional cycling look like? In B. Fincoeur, J. Gleaves, & O. Fabien (Eds.), Doping in cycling (pp. 164–174). Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Kayser, B., & Broers, B. (2012). The Olympics and harm reduction? Harm Reduction Journal, 9(1), 33–39. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7517-9-33
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kayser, B., & Smith, A. C. (2008). Globalisation of anti-doping: The reverse side of the medal. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 337(1), a584–a584. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.a584
   Google Scholar
• Liu, J., Mooney, H., Hull, V., Davis, S. J., Gaskell, J., Hertel, T., Lubchenco, J., Seto, K. C., Gleick, P., Kremen, C., & Li, S. (2015). Systems integration for global sustainability. Science, 347(6225), 1258832. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1258832
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lockie, R. G., Murphy, A. J., Schultz, A. B., Knight, T. J., & de Jonge, X. A. J. (2012). The effects of different speed training protocols on sprint acceleration kinematics and muscle strength and power in field sport athletes. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 26(6), 1539–1550. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e318234e8a0
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean, S., Kerhervé, H. A., Stevens, N., & Salmon, P. M. (2021). A systems analysis critique of sport-science research. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 16(10), 1385–1392. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2020-0934
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean, S., Rath, D., Lethlean, S., Hornsby, M., Gallagher, J., Anderson, D., & Salmon, P. M. (2021). With crisis comes opportunity: Redesigning performance departments of elite sports clubs for life after a global pandemic. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 588959. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.588959
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McLean, S., Read, G. J., Hulme, A., Dodd, K., Gorman, A. D., Solomon, C., & Salmon, P. M. (2019). Beyond the tip of the iceberg: Using systems archetypes to understand common and recurring issues in sports coaching. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 1, 49. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2019.00049
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meadows, D. H. (1997). Places to intervene in a system (in increasing order of effectiveness). Whole earth, 1, 78.
   Google Scholar
• Meir, R., Colla, P., & Milligan, C. (2001). Impact of the 10-meter rule change on professional rugby league: Implications for training. Strength & Conditioning Journal, 23(6), 42–46. https://doi.org/10.1519/00126548-200112000-00010
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miragaia, D. A., Ferreira, J., & Ratten, V. (2017). Corporate social responsibility and social entrepreneurship: Drivers of sports sponsorship policy. International Journal of Sport Policy & Politics, 9(4), 613–623. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2017.1374297
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Oakley, A. J., Jennings, J., & Bishop, C. J. (2018). Holistic hamstring health: Not just the Nordic hamstring exercise (Vol. 52). BMJ Publishing Group Ltd and British Association of Sport and Exercise Medicine.
   Google Scholar
• Opar, D. A., Piatkowski, T., Williams, M. D., & Shield, A. J. (2013). A novel device using the Nordic hamstring exercise to assess eccentric knee flexor strength: A reliability and retrospective injury study. Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 43(9), 636–640. https://doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2013.4837
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Preuss, H. (2019). Event legacy framework and measurement. International Journal of Sport Policy & Politics, 11(1), 103–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/19406940.2018.1490336
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Purkayastha, A., Palmaro, E., Falk-Krzesinski, H. J., & Baas, J. (2019). Comparison of two article-level, field-independent citation metrics: Field-weighted citation impact (FWCI) and relative citation ratio (RCR). Journal of Informetrics, 13(2), 635–642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2019.03.012
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Read, G. J., Salmon, P. M., Goode, N., & Lenné, M. G. (2018). A sociotechnical design toolkit for bridging the gap between systems‐based analyses and system design. Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing & Service Industries, 28(6), 327–341. https://doi.org/10.1002/hfm.20769
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Read, D., Skinner, J., Lock, D., & Houlihan, B. (2020). Balancing mission creep, means, effectiveness and legitimacy at the world anti-doping agency. Performance Enhancement & Health, 8(2–3), 100175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peh.2020.100175
   Google Scholar
• Sadigursky, D., Braid, J. A., De Lira, D. N. L., Machado, B. A. B., Carneiro, R. J. F., & Colavolpe, P. O. (2017). The FIFA 11+ injury prevention program for soccer players: A systematic review. BMC Sports Science, Medicine and Rehabilitation, 9(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13102-017-0083-z
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Salmon, P. M., & McLean, S. (2020). Complexity in the beautiful game: Implications for football research and practice. Science and Medicine in Football, 4(2), 162–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/24733938.2019.1699247
   Google Scholar
• Schenker, J. D., & Rumrill, P. D., Jr. (2004). Causal-comparative research designs. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 21(3), 117–121.
   Google Scholar
• Stewart, B. (2017). Sport funding and finance. Routledge.
   Google Scholar
• Van Dyk, N., Behan, F. P., & Whiteley, R. (2019). Including the Nordic hamstring exercise in injury prevention programmes halves the rate of hamstring injuries: A systematic review and meta-analysis of 8459 athletes. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 53(21), 1362–1370. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-100045
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wylie, L. J., Kelly, J., Bailey, S. J., Blackwell, J. R., Skiba, P. F., Winyard, P. G., Jeukendrup, A. E., Vanhatalo, A., & Jones, A. M. (2013). Beetroot juice and exercise: Pharmacodynamic and dose-response relationships. Journal of Applied Physiology, 115(3), 325–336. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00372.2013
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar