Complementary neural representations for faces and words: A computational exploration

REFERENCES

• Allison , T. , McCarthy , G. , Nobre , A. C. , Puce , A. and Belger , A. 1994 . Human extrastriate visual cortex and the perception of faces, words, numbers and colors . Cerebral Cortex , 5 : 544 – 554 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Avidan , G. and Behrmann , M. 2009 . Functional MRI reveals compromised neural integrity of the face processing network in congenital prosopagnosia . Current Biology , 19 : 1146 – 1150 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bach , F. R. and Jordan , M. I. 2002 . Kernel independent component analysis . Journal of Machine Learning Research , 3 : 1 – 48 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker , C. I. , Liu , J. , Wald , L. L. , Kwong , K. , Benner , T. and Kanwisher , N. 2007 . Visual word processing and experiential origins of functional selectivity in human extrastriate cortex . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA , 104 : 9087 – 9092 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bartlett , M. S. , Movellan , J. R. and Sejnowski , T. J. 2002 . Face recognition by independent component analysis . IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks , 13 : 1450 – 1464 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton , J. J. S. 2008 . Structure and function in acquired prosopagnosia: Lessons from a series of 10 patients with brain damage . Journal of Neuropsychology , 2 : 197 – 225 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton , J. J. S. 2009 . What is meant by impaired configural processing in acquired prosopagnosia? . Perception , 38 : 242 – 260 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Barton , J. J. , Cherkasova , M. V. , Press , D. Z. , Intriligator , J. M. and O'Connor , M. 2004 . Perceptual functions in prosopagnosia . Perception , 33 : 939 – 956 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Behrmann, M., & Avidan, G. (2005). Congenital prosopagnosia: Face-blind from birth. Trends in Cognitive Science, 9, 180-187.
   Google Scholar
• Behrmann , M. and Kimchi , R. 2003 . What does visual agnosia tell us about perceptual organization and its relationship to object perception? . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance , 29 : 19 – 42 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Behrmann , M. , Nelson , J. and Sekuler , E. 1998 . Visual complexity in letter-by-letter reading: “Pure” alexia is not so pure . Neuropsychologia , 36 : 1115 – 1132 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Behrmann , M. and Plaut , D. C. 2011 . Faces and words: Flip sides of the same brain , Manuscript submitted for publication
   Google Scholar
• Bilalic , M. , Langner , R. , Ulrich , R. and Grodd , W. 2011 . Many faces of expertise: Fusiform face area in chess experts and novices . Journal of Neuroscience , 31 : 10206 – 10214 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blanz , V. and Vetter , T. 2003 . Face recognition based on fitting a 3D morphable model . IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence , 25 : 1063 – 1074 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bouvier , S. E. and Engel , S. A. 2006 . Behavioral deficits and cortical damage loci in cerebral achromatopsia . Cerebral Cortex , 16 : 183 – 191 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brem, S., Bach, S., Kucian, K., Guttorm, T. K., Martin, E., Lytinen, H., Brandeis, D., & Richardson, U. (2010). Brain sensitivity to print emerges when children learn letter-sound correspondences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 107, 7939–7944.
   Google Scholar
• Brem , S. , Bucher , K. , Halder , P. , Summers , P. , Dietrich , T. Martin , E. 2006 . Evidence for developmental changes in the visual word processing network beyond adolescence . NeuroImage , 29 : 822 – 837 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Büchel , C. , Price , C. and Friston , K. 1998 . A multimodal language region in the ventral visual pathway . Nature , 394 : 274 – 277 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bukach , C. , Le Grand , R. , Kaiser , M. D. , Bub , D. N. and Tanaka , J. W. 2008 . Preservation of mouth region processing in two cases of prosopagnosia . Journal of Neuropsychology , 2 : 227 – 244 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burton , M. A. , Bruce , V. and Hancock , P. J. B. 1999 . From pixels to people: A model of familiar face recognition . Cognitive Science , 23 : 1 – 31 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Burton , M. A. , Young , A. W. , Bruce , V. , Johnston , R. A. and Ellis , A. W. 1991 . Understanding covert recognition . Cognition , 39 : 129 – 166 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Busigny , T. and Rossion , B. 2010 . Acquired prosopagnosia abolishes the face inversion effect . Cortex , 46 : 965 – 981 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buxbaum , L. , Glosser , G. and Coslett , H. B. 1996 . Relative sparing of object recognition in alexia–prosopagnosia . Brain and Cognition , 32 : 202 – 205 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buxbaum , L. J. , Glosser , G. and Coslett , H. B. 1999 . Impaired face and word recognition without object agnosia . Neuropsychologia , 37 : 41 – 50 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cai , Q. , Lavidor , M. , Brysbaert , M. , Paulignan , Y. and Nazir , T. A. 2008 . Cerebral lateralization of frontal lobe language processes and lateralization of the posterior visual word processing system . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 20 : 672 – 681 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cantlon , J. F. , Pinel , P. , Dehaene , S. and Pelphrey , K. A. 2011 . Cortical representations of symbols, objects, and faces are pruned back during early childhood . Cerebral Cortex , 21 : 191 – 199 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , L. and Dehaene , S. 2004 . Specialization within the ventral stream: The case for the visual word form area . NeuroImage , 22 ( 1 ) : 466 – 476 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , L. , Dehaene , S. , Naccache , L. , Lehericy , S. , Dehaene-Lambertz , G. Henaff , M. A. 2000 . The visual word form area: Spatial and temporal characterization of an initial stage of reading in normal subjects and posterior split-brain patients . Brain , 123 : 291 – 307 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , L. , Henry , C. , Dehaene , S. , Martinaud , O. , Lehericy , S. Lemer , C. 2004 . The pathophysiology of letter-by-letter reading . Neuropsychologia , 42 : 1768 – 1780 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , L. , Lehericy , S. , Henry , C. , Bourgeois , M. , Larroque , C. Sainte-Rose , C. 2004 . Learning to read without a left occipital lobe: Right-hemispheric shift of visual word form area . Annals of Neurology , 56 : 890 – 894 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , L. , Martinaud , O. , Lemer , C. , Lehericy , S. , Samson , Y. Obadia , M. 2003 . Visual word recognition in the left and right hemispheres: Anatomical and functional correlates of peripheral alexias . Cerebral Cortex , 13 : 1313 – 1333 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen Kadosh , K. , Cohen Kadosh , R. , Dick , F. and Johnson , M. H. 2010 . Developmental changes in effective connectivity in the emerging core face network . Cerebral Cortex , 21 : 1389 – 1394 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen Kadosh, K., & Johnson, M. H. (2007). Developing a cortex specialized for face perception. Trends in Cognitive Science, 11, 367–369.
   Google Scholar
• Coltheart , M. , Rastle , K. , Perry , C. , Langdon , R. and Ziegler , J. 2001 . DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud . Psychological Review , 108 : 204 – 256 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Coslett, H. B., & Monsul, N. (1994). Reading with the right hemisphere: Evidence from transcranial magnetic stimulation. Brain and Language, 46, 198–211.
   Google Scholar
• Cowey , A. 1979 . Cortical maps and visual perception. The Grindley Memorial Lecture . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 31 : 1 – 17 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dailey , M. N. and Cottrell , G. W. 1999 . Organization of face and object recognition in modular neural networks . Neural Networks , 12 : 1053 – 1074 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dailey , M. N. , Cottrell , G. W. , Padgett , C. and Adolphs , R. 2002 . EMPATH: A neural network that categorizes facial expressions . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 14 : 1158 – 1173 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Damasio , A. , Damasio , H. and Tranel , D. 1986 . “ Prosopagnosia: Anatomic and physiological aspects ” . In Aspects of face processing , Edited by: Ellis , H. D. , Jeeves , M. A. , Newcombe , F. and Young , A. 279 – 290 . Dordrecht, , The Netherlands : Martinus Nijhoff .
   Google Scholar
• Davis , C. J. 1999 . The self-organizing lexical acquisition and recognition (SOLAR) model of visual word recognition , Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
   Google Scholar
• Dehaene , S. and Cohen , L. 2007 . Cultural recycling of cortical maps . Neuron , 56 : 384 – 398 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dehaene , S. and Cohen , L. 2011 . The unique role of the visual word form area in reading . Trends in Cognitive Science , 15 : 254 – 262 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dehaene , S. , Cohen , L. , Sigman , M. and Vinckier , F. 2005 . The neural code for written words: A proposal . Trends in Cognitive Science , 9 : 335 – 341 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dehaene , S. , Pegado , F. , Braga , L. W. , Ventura , P. , Filho , G. N. Jobert , A. 2010 . How learning to read changes the cortical networks for vision and language . Science , 330 : 1359 – 1364 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• de Schonen, S., Mancini, J., Camps, R., Maes, E., & Laurent, A. (2005). Early brain lesions and face-processing development. Developmental Psychobiology, 46, 184–208.
   Google Scholar
• Devlin , J. T. , Jamison , H. L. , Gonnerman , L. M. and Matthews , P. M. 2006 . The role of the posterior fusiform gyrus in reading . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 18 : 911 – 922 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De Yoe , E. A. , Carman , G. J. , Bandettini , P. , Glickman , S. , Wieser , J. Cox , R. 1996 . Mapping striate and extrastriate visual areas in human cerebral cortex . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , 93 : 2382 – 2386 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Downing , P. E. , Jiang , Y. , Shuman , M. and Kanwisher , N. 2001 . A cortical area selective for visual processing of the human body . Science , 293 : 2470 – 2473 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dundas, E., Plaut, D. C., & Behrmann, M. (2011). The joint development of hemispheric lateralization for words and faces. Submitted for publication.
   Google Scholar
• Epstein , R. A. , Deyoe , E. A. , Press , D. Z. , Rosen , A. C. and Kanwisher , N. 2001 . Neuropsychological evidence for a topographical learning mechanism in parahippocampal cortex . Cognitive Neuropsychology , 18 : 481 – 508 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein , R. A. , Harris , A. , Stanley , D. and Kanwisher , N. 1999 . The parahippocampal place area: Recognition, navigation, or encoding? . Neuron , 23 : 115 – 125 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Epstein , R. A. and Kanwisher , N. 1998 . A cortical representation of the local visual environment . Nature , 392 : 598 – 601 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Etemad , K. and Chellappa , R. 1997 . Discriminant analysis for recognition of human face images . Journal of the Optical Society of America A , 14 : 1724 – 1733 .
   Google Scholar
• Farah , M. J. 1991 . Patterns of co-occurrence among the associative agnosias: Implications for visual object recognition . Cognitive Neuropsychology , 8 : 1 – 19 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farah , M. J. 1992 . Is an object an object an object? Cognitive and neuropsychological investigations of domain specificity in visual object recognition . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 1 : 164 – 169 .
   Google Scholar
• Farah , M. J. 1996 . Is face recognition “special”? Evidence from neuropsychology . Behavioural Brain Research , 76 : 181 – 189 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farah , M. J. 1999 . “ Relations among the agnosias ” . In Case studies in the neuropsychology of vision , Edited by: Humphreys , G. W. 181 – 200 . Hove, , UK : Psychology Press .
   Google Scholar
• Farah , M. J. , O'Reilly , R. C. and Vecera , S. P. 1993 . Dissociated overt and covert recognition as an emergent property of a lesioned neural network . Psychological Review , 100 : 571 – 588 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farah , M. J. , Tanaka , J. W. and Drain , H. M. 1995 . What causes the face inversion effect? . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance , 21 : 628 – 634 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feinberg , T. E. , Schindler , R. J. , Ochoa , E. , Kwan , P. C. and Farah , M. J. 1994 . Associative visual agnosia and alexia without prosopagnosia . Cortex , 30 : 395 – 412 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiez , J. A. , Balota , D. A. , Raichle , M. E. and Petersen , S. E. 1999 . Effects of lexicality, frequency, and spelling-to-sound consistency on the functional anatomy of reading . Neuron , 24 : 205 – 218 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fodor , J. 1983 . The modularity of mind , Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Furl , N. , Garrido , L. , Dolan , R. J. , Driver , J. and Duchaine , B. 2010 . Fusiform gyrus face selectivity relates to individual differences in facial recognition ability . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 23 : 1723 – 1740 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gainotti , G. and Marra , C. 2011 . Differential contribution of right and left temporo-occipital and anterior temporal lesions to face recognition disorders . Frontiers in Human Neuroscience , 5 : 1 – 11 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gauthier , I. and Bukach , C. 2007 . Should we reject the expertise hypothesis? . Cognition , 103 : 322 – 330 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gauthier , I. and Nelson , C. A. 2001 . The development of face expertise . Current Opinion in Neurobiology , 11 : 219 – 224 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gauthier , I. , Tarr , M. J. , Anderson , A. W. , Skudlarski , P. and Gore , J. C. 1999 . Activation of the middle fusiform “face area” increases with expertise in recognizing novel objects . Nature Neuroscience , 2 : 568 – 573 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gauthier , I. , Tarr , M. J. , Moylan , J. , Skudlarski , P. , Gore , J. C. and Anderson , A. W. 2000 . The fusiform “face area” is part of a network that processes faces at the individual level . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 12 : 495 – 504 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golarai , G. , Ghahremani , D. G. , Whitfield-Gabrieli , S. , Reiss , A. , Eberhardt , J. L. Gabrieli , J. D. 2007 . Differential development of high-level visual cortex correlates with category-specific recognition memory . Nature Neuroscience , 10 : 512 – 522 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Golarai , G. , Liberman , A. , Yoon , J. M. and Grill-Spector , K. 2010 . Differential development of the ventral visual cortex extends through adolescence . Frontiers in Human Neuroscience , 3 : 80
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Grainger , J. , Granier , J. P. , Farioli , F. , Van Assche , E. and van Heuven , W. 2006 . Letter position information and printed word perception: The relative-position priming constraint . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance , 32 : 865 – 884 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Greenberg , A. , Verstynen , T. , Chiu , Y.-V. , Yantis , S. , Schneider , W. and Behrmann , M. 2011 . Spatiotopic structural connectivity underlying visual attention , Manuscript submitted for publication
   Google Scholar
• Grill-Spector , K. and Malach , R. 2004 . The human visual cortex . Annual Review of Neuroscience , 27 : 649 – 677 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grill-Spector , K. , Sayres , R. and Ress , D. 2006 . High-resolution imaging reveals highly selective non-face clusters in the fusiform face area . Nature Neuroscience , 9 : 1177 – 1185 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hanson , S. J. and Schmidt , A. 2011 . High-resolution imaging of the fusiform face area (FFA) using multivariate non-linear classifiers shows diagnosticity for non-face categories . NeuroImage , 54 : 1715 – 1734 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harm , M. W. and Seidenberg , M. S. 1999 . Phonology, reading acquisition, and dyslexia: Insights from connectionist models . Psychological Review , 106 : 491 – 528 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harm , M. W. and Seidenberg , M. S. 2004 . Computing the meanings of words in reading: Cooperative division of labor between visual and phonological processes . Psychological Review , 111 : 662 – 720 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hasson , U. , Levy , I. , Behrmann , M. , Hendler , T. and Malach , R. 2002 . Center-biased representation for characters in the human ventral visual stream . Neuron , 34 : 479 – 490 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haxby , J. V. 2006 . Fine structure in representations of faces and objects . Nature Neuroscience , 9 : 1084 – 1086 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haxby , J. V. , Gobbini , M. I. , Furey , M. L. , Ishai , A. , Schouten , J. L. and Pietrini , P. 2001 . Distributed and overlapping representations of faces and objects in ventral temporal cortex . Science , 293 : 2425 – 2429 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Haxby , J. V. , Petit , L. , Ungerleider , L. G. and Courtney , S. M. 2000 . Distinguishing the functional roles of multiple regions in distributed neural systems for visual working memory . NeuroImage , 11 : 380 – 391 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoffman , E. A. and Haxby , J. V. 2000 . Distinct representations of eye gaze and identity in the distributed human neural system for face perception . Nature Neuroscience , 3 : 80 – 84 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsiao , J. , Shieh , D. and Cottrell , G. W. 2008 . Convergence of the visual field split: Hemispheric modeling of face and object recognition . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 20 : 2298 – 2307 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishai , A. 2008 . Let's face it: It's a cortical network . NeuroImage , 40 : 415 – 419 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ishai , A. , Schmidt , C. F. and Boesiger , P. 2005 . Face perception is mediated by a distributed cortical network . Brain Research Bulletin , 67 : 87 – 93 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs , R. A. 1997 . Nature, nurture and the development of functional specializations: A computational approach . Psychonomic Bulletin and Review , 4 : 299 – 309 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobs , R. A. and Jordan , M. I. 1992 . Computational consequences of a bias toward short connections . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 4 : 323 – 336 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joseph , J. E. , Gathers , A. D. and Bhatt , R. S. 2011 . Progressive and regressive developmental changes in neural substrates for face processing: Testing specific predictions of the interactive specialization account . Developmental Science , 14 : 227 – 241 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanan , C. M. and Cottrell , G. W. 2010 . “ Robust classification of objects, faces, and flowers using natural image statistics ” . In Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR-2010) , Washington DC : IEEE Computer Society .
   Google Scholar
• Kanwisher , N. 2000 . Domain specificity in face perception . Nature Neuroscience , 3 : 759 – 763 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanwisher , N. 2010 . Functional specificity in the human brain: A window into the functional architecture of the mind . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA , 107 : 11163 – 11170 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanwisher , N. , McDermott , J. and Chun , M. M. 1997 . The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception . The Journal of Neuroscience , 17 : 4302 – 4311 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kanwisher , N. , Woods , R. P. , Iacoboni , M. and Mazziotta , J. C. 1997 . A locus in human extrastriate cortex for visual shape analysis . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 9 : 133 – 142 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kleinschmidt , A. and Cohen , L. 2006 . The neural bases of prosopagnosia and pure alexia: Recent insights from functional neuroimaging . Current Opinion in Neurology , 19 : 386 – 391 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kosslyn , S. M. , Koenig , O. , Barrett , A. , Cave , C. B. , Tang , J. and Gabrieli , J. D. E. 1989 . Evidence for two types of spatial representations: Hemispheric specialization for categorical and coordinate relations . Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance , 15 : 723 – 735 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kriegeskorte , N. , Formisano , E. , Sorge , B. and Goebel , R. 2007 . Individual faces elicit distinct response patterns in human anterior temporal cortex . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA , 104 : 20600 – 20605 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kronbichler , M. , Hutzler , F. , Wimmer , H. , Mair , A. , Staffen , W. and Ladurner , G. 2004 . The visual word form area and the frequency with which words are encountered: Evidence from a parametric fMRI study . NeuroImage , 21 : 946 – 953 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lavidor , M. , Ellis , A. W. , Shillcock , R. and Bland , T. 2001 . Evaluating a split processing model of visual word recognition: Effects of word length . Cognitive Brain Research , 12 : 265 – 272 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Levy , I. , Hasson , U. , Hendler , T. and Malach , R. 2001 . Center-periphery organization of human object areas . Nature Neuroscience , 4 : 533 – 539 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Levy , I. , Hasson , U. and Malach , R. 2004 . One picture is worth at least a million neurons . Current Biology , 14 : 996 – 1001 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liu , Y. C. , Wang , A. G. and Yen , M. Y. 2011 . “Seeing but not identifying”: Pure alexia coincident with prosopagnosia in occipital arteriovenous malformation . Graefe's Archive of Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology , 248 : 1087 – 1089 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahon , B. Z. and Caramazza , A. 2011 . What drives the organization of knowledge in the brain . Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 15 : 97 – 103 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McCandliss , B. D. , Cohen , L. and Dehaene , S. 2003 . The visual word form area: Expertise for reading in the fusiform gyrus . Trends in Cognitive Science , 7 : 293 – 299 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClelland , J. L. and Rumelhart , D. E. 1981 . An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception: Part 1. An account of basic findings . Psychological Review , 88 : 375 – 407 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McClelland , J. L. and Rumelhart , D. E. 1985 . Distributed memory and the representation of general and specific information . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 114 : 159 – 188 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McKone , E. and Robbins , R. 2011 . “ Are faces special? ” . In Oxford handbook of face perception , Edited by: Calder , A. J. , Rhodes , G. , Haxby , J. V. and Johnson , M. H. 149 – 176 . Oxford, UK : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mechelli , A. , Gorno-Tempini , M. L. and Price , C. J. 2003 . Neuroimaging studies of word and pseudoword reading: Consistencies, inconsistencies, and limitations . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 15 : 260 – 271 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moghaddam , B. , Jebara , T. and Pentland , A. 2000 . Bayesian face recognition . Pattern Recognition , 33 : 1771 – 1782 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Montant , M. and Behrmann , M. 2000 . Pure alexia: Review of cases . Neurocase , 6 : 265 – 294 .
   Google Scholar
• Mozer , M. C. 1991 . The perception of multiple objects: A connectionist approach , Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Mozer , M. C. and Behrmann , M. 1990 . On the interaction of selective attention and lexical knowledge: A connectionist account of neglect dyslexia . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 2 : 96 – 123 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Murtha , S. , Chertkow , H. , Beauregard , M. and Evans , A. 1999 . The neural substrate of picture naming . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 11 : 399 – 423 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nelson , M. E. and Bower , J. M. 1990 . Brain maps and parallel computers . Trends in Neurosciences , 13 : 403 – 408 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nestor , A. , Behrmann , M. and Plaut , D. C. 2011 . The neural basis of visual word form processing—a multivariate investigation , Manuscript submitted for publication
   Google Scholar
• Nestor, A., Plaut, D. C., & Behrmann, M. (2011). Unraveling the distributed neural code of facial identity through spatiotemporal pattern analysis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 108, 9998–10003.
   Google Scholar
• Noppeney , U. , Friston , K. J. and Price , C. J. 2003 . Effects of visual deprivation on the organization of the semantic system . Brain , 126 : 1620 – 1627 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norman , K. A. , Polyn , S. M. , Detre , G. J. and Haxby , J. V. 2006 . Beyond mind-reading: Multi-voxel pattern analysis of fMRI data . Trends in Cognitive Science , 10 : 424 – 430 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O'Reilly , R. C. 1996 . Biologically plausible error-driven learning using local activation differences: The generalized recirculation algorithm . Neural Computation , 8 : 895 – 938 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peelen , M. V. and Downing , P. E. 2005 . Selectivity for the human body in the fusiform gyrus . Journal of Neurophysiology , 93 : 603 – 608 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perry , C. , Ziegler , J. C. and Zorzi , M. 2007 . Nested incremental modeling in the development of computational theories: The CDP+ model of reading aloud . Psychological Review , 114 : 273 – 315 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen , S. E. and Fiez , J. 1993 . The processing of single words studies with positron emission tomography . Annual Review of Neurosciences , 16 : 509 – 530 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen , S. , Fox , P. T. , Snyder , A. and Raichle , M. E. 1990 . Activation of extrastriate and frontal cortical areas by visual words and word-like stimuli . Science , 249 : 1041 – 1044 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plaut , D. C. 1999 . A connectionist approach to word reading and acquired dyslexia: Extension to sequential processing . Cognitive Science , 23 : 543 – 568 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plaut , D. C. 2002 . Graded modality-specific specialization in semantics: A computational account of optic aphasia . Cognitive Neuropsychology , 19 : 603 – 639 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Plaut , D. C. , McClelland , J. L. , Seidenberg , M. S. and Patterson , K. 1996 . Understanding normal and impaired word reading: Computational principles in quasi-regular domains . Psychological Review , 103 : 56 – 115 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polk , T. A. and Farah , M. J. 2002 . Functional MRI evidence for an abstract, not perceptual, word-form area . Journal of Experimental Psychology: General , 131 : 65 – 72 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Polk , T. A. , Stallcup , M. , Aguirre , G. K. , Alsop , D. C. , D'Esposito , M. Detre , J. A. 2002 . Neural specialization for letter recognition . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 14 : 145 – 159 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price , C. J. and Devlin , J. T. 2003 . The myth of the visual word form area . NeuroImage , 19 : 473 – 481 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price , C. J. and Devlin , J. T. 2011 . The interactive account of ventral occipitotemporal contributions to reading . Trends in Cognitive Science , 15 : 246 – 253 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Price , C. J. and Mechelli , A. 2005 . Reading and reading disturbance . Current Opinion in Neurobiology , 15 : 231 – 238 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puce , A. , Allison , T. , Asgari , M. , Gore , J. C. and McCarthy , G. 1996 . Differential sensitivity of human visual cortex to faces, letter strings, and textures: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study . The Journal of Neuroscience , 16 : 5205 – 5215 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Puce , A. , Allison , T. , Gore , J. C. and McCarthy , G. 1995 . Face-sensitive regions in human extrastriate cortex studied by functional MRI . Journal of Neurophysiology , 74 : 1192 – 1199 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Quartz , S. R. and Sejnowski , T. J. 1997 . The neural basis of cognitive development: A constructivist manifesto . Behavioral and Brain Sciences , 20 : 537 – 596 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rajimehr , R. , Young , J. C. and Tootell , R. B. 2009 . An anterior temporal face patch in human cortex, predicted by macaque maps . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA , 106 : 1995 – 2000 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reddy , L. and Kanwisher , N. 2006 . Coding of visual objects in the ventral stream . Current Opinion in Neurobiology , 16 : 408 – 414 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reich , L. , Szwed , M. , Cohen , L. and Amedi , A. 2011 . A ventral visual stream reading center independent of visual experience . Current Biology , 21 : 363 – 368 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robertson, L. C., & Ivry, R. (2000). Hemispheric asymmetries: Attention to visual and auditory primitives. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9, 59–64.
   Google Scholar
• Rumelhart , D. E. , Hinton , G. E. and Williams , R. J. 1986 . Learning representations by back-propagating errors . Nature , 323 : 533 – 536 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salvan , C. V. , Ulmer , J. L. , DeYoe , E. A. , Wascher , T. , Mathews , V. P. Lewis , J. W. 2004 . Visual object agnosia and pure word alexia: Correlation of functional magnetic resonance imaging and lesion localization . Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography , 28 : 63 – 67 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scherf , K. S. , Behrmann , M. , Humphreys , K. and Luna , B. 2007 . Visual category-selectivity for faces, places and objects emerges along different developmental trajectories . Developmental Science , 10 : 15 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwarzlose , R. F. , Baker , C. I. and Kanwisher , N. 2005 . Separate face and body selectivity on the fusiform gyrus . Journal of Neuroscience , 25 : 11055 – 11059 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sereno , M. I. , Dale , A. M. , Reppas , J. B. , Kwong , K. K. , Belliveau , J. W. Brady , T. J. 1995 . Borders of multiple visual areas in humans revealed by functional magnetic resonance imaging . Science , 268 : 889 – 893 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sergent , J. , Ohta , S. and MacDonald , B. 1992 . Functional neuroanatomy of face and object processing . Brain , 115 : 15 – 36 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sewards , T. V. 2011 . Neural structures and mechanisms involved in scene recognition: A review and interpretation . Neuropsychologia , 49 ( 3 ) : 277 – 298 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shillcock , R. , Ellison , M. T. and Monaghan , P. 2000 . Eye-fixation behavior, lexical storage and visual word recognition in a split processing model . Psychological Review , 107 : 824 – 851 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spiridon , M. , Fischl , B. and Kanwisher , N. 2006 . Location and spatial profile of category-specific regions in human extrastriate cortex . Human Brain Mapping , 27 ( 1 ) : 77 – 89 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spiridon , M. and Kanwisher , N. 2002 . How distributed is visual category information in human occipito-temporal cortex? An fMRI study . Neuron , 35 ( 6 ) : 1157 – 1165 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Starrfelt , R. and Behrmann , M. 2011 . Number reading in pure alexia: A review . Neuropsychologia , 49 ( 9 ) : 2283 – 2298 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stephan , B. C. and Caine , D. 2009 . Aberrant pattern of scanning in prosopagnosia reflects impaired face processing . Brain and Cognition , 69 : 262 – 268 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tagamets , M. A. , Novick , J. M. , Chalmers , M. L. and Friedman , R. B. 2000 . A parametric approach to orthographic processing in the brain: An fMRI study . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 12 : 281 – 297 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanaka , J. W. and Farah , M. J. 1993 . Parts and wholes in face recognition . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 46A : 225 – 245 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Taylor , J. C. , Wiggett , A. J. and Downing , P. E. 2010 . fMRI-adaptation studies of viewpoint tuning in the extrastriate and fusiform body areas . Journal of Neurophysiology , 103 : 1467 – 1477 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong , M. H. , Joyce , C. A. and Cottrell , G. W. 2008 . Why is the fusiform face area recruited for novel categories of expertise? A neurocomputational investigation . Brain Research , 1202 : 14 – 24 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tootell , R. B. H. , Mendola , J. , Hadjikhani , H. , Ledden , P. , Liu , A. Reppas , J. 1997 . Functional analysis of V3a and related areas in human visual cortex . Journal of Neuroscience , 71 : 7060 – 7078 .
   Google Scholar
• Tranel , D. , Damasio , H. and Damasio , A. R. 1997 . A neural basis for the retrieval of conceptual knowledge . Neuropsychologia , 35 : 1319 – 1328 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turk , M. and Pentland , A. 1991 . Eigenfaces for recognition . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 3 : 71 – 86 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turkeltaub , P. E. , Eden , G. F. , Jones , K. M. and Zeffiro , T. A. 2002 . Meta-analysis of the functional neuroanatomy of single-word reading: Method and validation . NeuroImage , 16 : 765 – 780 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Warrington , E. K. and Shallice , T. 1980 . Word-form dyslexia . Brain , 103 : 99 – 112 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weekes , B. S. 1997 . Differential effects of number of letters on word and nonword naming latency . Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology , 50A : 439 – 456 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Whitney , C. 2001 . How the brain encodes the order of letters in a printed word: The SERIOL model and selective literature review . Psychonomic Bulletin and Review , 8 : 221 – 243 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Willems , R. M. , Peelen , M. V. and Hagoort , P. 2010 . Cerebral lateralization of face-selective and body-selective visual areas depends on handedness . Cerebral Cortex , 20 : 1719 – 1725 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wong, A. C., Gauthier, I., Woroch, B., DeBuse, C., & Curran, T. (2005). An early electrophysiological response associated with expertise in letter perception. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience, 5, 306–318.
   Google Scholar
• Yang , M.-H. 2002 . “ Face recognition using kernel methods ” . In Advances in neural information processing systems , Edited by: Diederich , T. , Becker , S. and Ghahramani , Z. Vol. 14 , 1457 – 1464 . Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Yovel , G. and Kanwisher , N. 2005 . The neural basis of the behavioral face-inversion effect . Current Biology , 15 : 2256 – 2262 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yovel , G. , Tambini , A. and Brandman , T. 2008 . The asymmetry of the fusiform face area is a stable individual characteristic that underlies the left-visual-field superiority for faces . Neuropsychologia , 46 : 3061 – 3068 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar