WILLED ACTION AND ITS IMPAIRMENTS

References

• Adler , L. E. , Pecevich , M. and Nagamoto , H. 1989 . Bereitschaftspotential in tardivedyskinesia . Movement Disorders , 4 ( 2 ) : 105 – 112 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Agostino , R. , Berardelli , A. , Fromica , A. , Accornero , N. and Manfredi , M. 1992 . Sequential arm movements in patients with Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease and dystonia . Brain , 115 : 1481 – 1495 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander , G. E. and Crutcher , M. D. 1990 . Functional architecture of basal gangla circuits: Neural substrates of parallel processing . Trends in Neurosciences , 13 : 266 – 271 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander , G. E. , Crutcher , M. D. and DeLong , M. R. 1990 . Basal ganglia thalamocortical circuits: Parallel substrates for motor, oculomotor, ‘Pre-frontal’; and ‘limbic’ functions . Progressive Brain Research , 85 : 119 – 146 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alexander , G. E. , DeLong , M. R. and Strick , P. L. 1986 . Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex . Annual Review of Neuroscience , 9 : 357 – 381 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alivisatos , B. and Milner , B. 1989 . Effects of frontal or temporal lobectomy on the use of advance information in a choice reaction time task . Neuropsychologia , 27 ( 4 ) : 495 – 503 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Allen , H. A. , Liddle , P. F. and Frith , C. D. 1993 . Negative features, retrieval process and verbal fluency in schizophrenia . British Journal of Psychiatry , 163 : 769 – 775 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amabile , G. , Fattapposta , F. , Poxxessere , G. , Albani , G. , Sanarelli , L. , Rizzo , P. A. and Morocutti , C. 1986 . Parkinson's disease: Electrophysiological (CNV) analysis related to pharmacological treatment . EEG Clinical Electroencephalography , 64 : 521 – 524 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Amassian , V. E. , Cracco , R. Q. , Maccabee , P. J. , Bigland-Ritchie , B. and Cracco , J. B. 1991 . “ Matching focal and non-focal magnetic coil stimulation to properties of human nervous system: Mapping motor unit fields in motor cortex contrasted with altering sequential digit movements by premotor-SMA stimulation ” . In Magnetic motor stimulation: Basic principles and clinical experience , Edited by: Levy , W. J. , Cracco , R. Q. , Barker , A. T. and Rothwell , J. Amsterdam : Elsevier . EEG suppl. 43
   Google Scholar
• Aminoff , M. J. and Goodin , D. S. 1993 . Premovement cerebral potentials in simple reaction-time tasks . Neurology , 43 : A268
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ammon , K. and Gandevia , S. C. 1990 . Transcranial magnetic stimulation can influence the selection of motor programmes . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 53 ( 8 ) : 705 – 777 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Andreasen , N. C. , Rezai , K. , Alligen , R. , Swayze , V. W. , Flaum , M. , Kirchner , P. , Cohen , G. and O'Leary , D. 1992 . Hypofrontalityin neuroleptic-naive patients and in patients with chronic schizophrenia . Archives of General Psychiatry , 49 : 943 – 958 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arezzo , J. and Vaughan , H. G. J. 1975 . Cortical potentials associated with voluntary movements in the monkey . Brain Research , 88 ( 1 ) : 99 – 104 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atchison , P. R. , Thompson , P. D. , Frackowiak , R. S. and Marsden , C. D. 1993 . The syndrome of gait ignition failure: A report of six cases . Movement Disorders , 8 : 285 – 292 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Awh , E. , Jonides , J. , Smith , E. E. , Schumacher , E. H. , Koeppe , R. A. and Katz , S. 1996 . Dissociation of storage and rehearsal in verbal working memory: Evidence from positron emission tomography . Psychological Science , 7 ( 1 ) : 25 – 31 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baker , S. C. , Rogers , R. D. , Owen , A. M. , Frith , C. D. , Dolan , R. J. , Frackowiak , R. S. J. and Robbins , T. W. 1996 . Neural systems engaged by planning: A PET study of the Tower of London task . Neuro-psychologia , 34 ( 6 ) : 515 – 526 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Baron , M. S. , Vitek , J. L. , Bakay , R. A. E. , Green , J. , Kaneoke , Y. , Hashimoto , T. , Turner , R. S. , Woo-dard , J. L. , Cole , S. A. , McDonald , W. M. and De-Long , M. R. 1996 . Treatment of advanced Parkinson's disease by posterior GPi pallido-tomy: 1-year results of a pilot study . Annals of Neurology , 40 : 355 – 366 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bench , C. J. , Friston , K. J. , Brown , R. G. , Scott , L. C. , Frackowiak , R. S. J. and Donlan , R. J. 1992 . The anatomy of melancholia--focal abnormalities of cerebral blood flow in major depression . Psychological Medicine , 22 : 607 – 615 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benecke , R. , Rothwell , J. C. , Dick , J. P. , Day , B. L. and Marsden , C. D. 1986 . Performance of simultaneous movements in patients with Parkinson's disease . Brain , 109 : 739 – 757 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Benecke , R. , Rothwell , J. C. , Dick , J. P. , Day , B. L. and Marsden , C. D. 1987 . “ Disturbance of sequential movements in patients with Parkinson's disease ” . In Brain 361 – 379 .
   Google Scholar
• Benecke , R. , Rothwell , J. C. , Dick , J. P. , Day , B. L. and Marsden , C. D. 1987b . Simple and complex movements off and on treatment in patients with Parkinson's disease . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry , 50 : 296 303
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bhatia , K. P. and Marsden , C. D. 1994 . The behavioural and motor consequences of focal lesions of the basal ganglia in man . Brain , 117 : 859 – 876 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bloxham , C. A. , Mindel , T. A. and Frith , C. D. 1984 . Initiation and execution of predictable and unpredictable movements in Parkinson's disease . Brain , 107 : 371 – 384 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Blumer , D. and Benson , D. 1975 . “ Personality changes with frontal and temporal lobe lesions ” . In Psychiatric aspects of neurologic disease , Edited by: Benson , D. F. and Blumer , D. 151 – 170 . New York : Grune & Stratton .
   Google Scholar
• Brooks , D. J. 1995 . The role of the basal ganglia in motor control: Contributions from PET . Journal of the Neurological Sciences , 128 : 1 – 13 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brooks , D. J. , Ibanez , V. , Sawles , G. V. , Quinn , N. , Lees , A. J. , Mathias , C. J. , Banniseter , R. , Marsden , C. D. and Frackowiak , R. S. J. 1990 . Differing patterns of striatal18F-dopa uptake in Parkin-son's disease, multiple system atrophy, and progressive supranuclear palsy (see comments) . Annals of Neurology , 28 : 547 – 555 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brotchie , P. , Iansek , R. and Horne , M. K. 1991 . Motor function in the monkey globus pallidus II. Cognitive aspects of movement and phasic neuronal activity . Brain , 114 : 1685 – 1702 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , K. and White , T. 1991 . The association among negative symptoms, movement disorders and frontal lobe psychological deficits in schizophrenic patients . Biological Psychiatry , 30 : 1182 – 1190 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , R. G. , Jahanshahi , M. and Marsden , C. D. 1993a . The execution of bimanual movements in patients with Parkinson's, Huntington's and cerebellar disease . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry , 56 : 295 – 297 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , R. G. , Jahanshahi , M. and Marsden , C. D. 1993b . Response choice in Parkinson's disease. The effects of uncertainty and stimulus-response compatibility . Brain , 116 : 869 – 885 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , R. G. and Marsden , C. D. 1988 . Internal versus external cues and the control of attention in Parkinson's disease . Brain , 111 : 323 – 345 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Brown , R. G. , Soliveri , P. and Jahanshahi , M. in press . Random response generation in Parkinson's disease and normal controls. Executive processes and the role of the prefrontal cortex . Neuropsychologia ,
   Google Scholar
• Carnahan , H. , Chua , R. , Elliot , D. , Velamoor , V. R. and Carnahan , C. H. 1994 . Effects of schizophrenia and prefrontal leukotomy on movement preparation and generation . Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 16 ( 2 ) : 253 – 260 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ceballos-Baumann , A. O. , Obesa , J. A. , Vitek , J. L. , DeLong , M. R. , Bakay , R. , Linazasoro , G. and Brooks , D. J. 1994 . Restoration of the thalamocortical activity after posteroventral pallidotomy in Parkinson's disease . Lancet , 344 ( 8925 ) : 814
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chiarenza , G. A. , Papakostopoulos , D. , Dini , M. and Cazzullo , C. 1985 . Neurophysiological correlates of psychomotor activity in chronic schizophrenics . ElectroencephalographyandClinical Neurophysiology , 61 : 218 – 228 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cohen , R. 1990 . “ Event-related potentials and cognitive dysfunction in schizophrenia ” . In Search for the causes of schizophrenia , Edited by: Hafner , H. and Gattaz , W. F. Vol. 2 , Berlin : Springer-Verlag .
   Google Scholar
• Cohen , J. D. and Servan-Schreiber , D. 1992 . Context, cortex and dopamine: A connectionist approachtobehaviourandbiologyin schizophrenia . Psychological Review , 99 : 45 – 77 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooke , J. D. , Brown , J. D. and Brooks , V. B. 1978 . Increased dependence on visual information for movement control in patients with Parkinson's disease . Canadian Journal of Neurological Science , 5 ( 4 ) : 413 – 415 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cooper , J. A. , Sagar , H. J. , Tidwell , P. and Jordan , N. 1994 . Slowed central processing in simple and go/no-go reaction time tasks in Parkinson's disease . Brain , 117 : 517 – 529 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cornblatt , B. , Lensenweger , M. F. and Erlenmeyer-Kimling , L. 1989 . A continuous performance test, identical pairs version. II. Contrasting attentional profiles in schizophrenic and depressed patients . Psychiatry Research , 29 : 65 – 85 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crawford , T. J. , Henderson , L. and Kennard , C. 1989 . Abnormalitites of nonvisually guided eye movements in Parkinson's disease . Brain , 112 ( 6 ) : 1573 – 1586 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crawford , T. J. , Puri , B. , Nijan , K. S. , Jones , B. , Kennard , C. and Lewis , S. W. 1996 . Abnormal saccadicdistractibilityinpatientswith schizophrenia: A 99m Tc-HMPAO SPET study . Psychological Medicine , 26 : 265 – 277 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crow , T. J. 1980 . Molecular pathology of schizophrenia: More than one disease process? . British Medical Journal , 280 : 66 – 68 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cummings , J. L. 1993 . Frontal-subcorticalcircuits and human behaviour . Archives of Neurology , 50 : 873 – 880 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunnington , R. , Iansek , R. , Bradshaw , J. L. and Phillips , J. G. 1995 . Movement-related potentials in Parkinson's disease. Presence and predictability of temporal and spatial cues . Brain , 118 ( 4 ) : 935 – 950 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cunnington , R. , Iansek , R. , Johnson , K. A. and Bradshaw , J. L. 1997 . Movement-related potentials in Parkinson's disease. Motor imagery and movement preparation . Brain , 120 ( 8 ) : 1339 – 1353 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Damasio , A. R. and Van Hoesen , G. W. 1980 . Structure and function of the supplementary motor area . Neurology (NY) , 30 : 359
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Damasio , A. R. and Van Hoesen , G. W. 1983 . “ Emotional disturbance associated with focal lesions of the limbic frontal lobe ” . In Neuropsychology of human emotion , Edited by: Heilman , K. M. and Satz , P. 85 – 110 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Davis , K. D. , Taub , E. , Houle , S. , Langu , A. E. , Dos-tovsky , J. O. , Tasker , R. R. and Lozano , A. M. 1997 . Globus pallidus stimulation activates the cortical motor system during alleviation of parkinsonian symptoms . Nature Medicine , 3 : 671 – 674 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Decary , A. and Richer , F. 1995 . Response selection deficits in frontal excisions . Neuropsychologia , 33 ( 10 ) : 1243 – 1253 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deecke , L. , Englitz , H. G. , Kornhuber , H. H. and Schmitt , G. 1977 . Cerebral potentials preceding voluntary movement in patients with bilateral or unilateral Parkinson akinesia . Prog. Clin Neurophysiol , 1 : 151 – 163 .
   Google Scholar
• Deecke , L. , Lang , W. , Heller , H. J. , Hufnagel , M. and Kornhuber , H. H. 1987 . Bereitschaftspotential in patients with unilateral lesions of the supplementary motor area . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 50 : 1430 – 1434 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deecke , L. , Scheid , P. and Kornhuber , H. H. 1969 . Distribution of readiness potential, pre-motion positivity and motor potential of the human cerebral cortex preceding voluntary finger movements . Experimental Brain Research , 7 : 158 – 168 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deiber , M. P. , Ibanez , V. , Sadato , N. and Hallett , M. 1996 . Cerebral structures participating in motor preparation in humans: A positron emission tomography study . Journal of Neurophysiology , 75 : 233 – 247 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Deiber , M. P. , Passingham , R. E. , Colebatch , J. G. , Friston , K. J. , Nixon , P. D. and Frackowiak , R. S. J. 1991 . Cortical areas and the selection of movement: A study with positron emission tomography . Experimental Brain Research , 84 : 393 – 402 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dick , J. P. , Benecke , R. , Rothwell , J. C. , Day , B. L. and Marsden , C. D. 1986 . Simple and complex movements in a patient with infarction of the right supplementary motor area . Mov. Disord , 1 : 255 – 266 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dick , J. P. , Cantello , R. , Buruma , O. , Gioux , M. , Benecke , R. , Day , B. L. , Rothwell , J. C. , Thompson , P. D. and Marsden , C. D. 1987 . The Bereitschafts-potential, L-DOPA and Parkinson's disease . Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology , 66 : 263 – 274 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Dick , J. P. , Rothwell , J. C. , Day , B. L. , Cantello , R. , Buruma , O. , Gioux , M. , Benecke , R. , Berardelli , A. , Thompson , P. D. and Marsden , C. D. 1989 . The Bereitschaftspotential is abnormal in Parkin-son's disease . Brain , 112 : 233 – 244 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dirnberger , G. , Fickel , I. U. , Lindinger , G. , Lang , W. and Jahanshahi , M. 1998 . The mode of movement selection: Movement-related cortical po-tentials prior to random choice and repetitive movements . Experimental Brain Research , 120 : 263 – 272 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dolan , R. J. , Fletcher , P. , Frith , C. D. , Friston , K. J. , Frackowiak , R. S. J. and Grasby , P. M. 1995 . “ Dopaminergic modulation of impaired cognitive activation in the anterior cingulate cortex in schizophrenia ” . In Nature 180 – 183 .
   Google Scholar
• Done , D. J. and Frith , C. D. 1989 . Automatic and strategic volitional saccadic eye movements in psychotic patients . Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Neurol. Sci. , 239 : 27 – 32 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Drewe , E. A. 1975 . Go-no go learning after frontal lobe lesions in humans . Cortex , 11 : 8 – 16 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Eidelberg , D. , Moeller , J. R. , Ishikawa , T. , Dhawan , V. , Spetsieris , D. , Stern , E. , Woods , R. P. , Fazzini , E. , Dogali , M. and Beric , A. 1996 . Regional metabolic correlates of surgical outcome following unilateral pallidotomy in Parkinson's disease . Annals of Neurology , 36 : 450 – 459 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliot , R. , Frith , C. D. and Dolan , D. J. 1997 . Differential neural response to positive and negative feedback in planning and guessing tasks . Neuropsychologia , 35 : 1395 – 1404 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eslinger , P. J. and Damasio , A. R. 1985 . Severe disturbance of higher cognition after bilateral frontal lobe ablation: Patient EVR . Neurology , 35 : 1731 – 1741 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Filipovic , S. R. , Covickovic-Sternic , N. , Radovic , V. M. , Dragasevic , N. , Stojanovic-Svetel , M. and Kostic , V. S. 1997 . Correlation between Bereit-schaftspotential and reaction time measurements in patients with Parkinson's disease . Measuring the impaired supplementary motor area function? Journal of Neurological Sciences , 147 : 177 – 183 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fletcher , P. C. , Frith , C. D. , Grasby , P. M. , Friston , K. J. and Dolan , R. J. 1996 . Local and distributed effects of apomorphine on fronto-temporal function in acute unmedicated schizophrenia . The Journal of Neuroscience , 16 ( 21 ) : 7055 – 7062 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Flowers , K. A. 1976 . Visual “closed-loop” and “open-loop” characteristics of voluntary movement in patients with Parkinsonism and intentional tremor . Brain , 99 ( 2 ) : 269 – 310 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fried , I. , Katz , A. , McCarthy , G. , Sass , K. J. , Williamson , P. , Spencer , S. S. and Spender , D. D. 1991 . Functional organisation of human supplementary motor cortex studied by electrical stimulation . Journal of Neuroscience , 11 ( 11 ) : 3656 – 3666 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Friston , K. J. and Frith , C. D. 1995 . Schizophrenia: A disconnection syndrome? . Clinical Neuroscience , 3 : 89 – 97 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Friston , K. J. , Frith , C. D. , Liddle , P. F. and Frackowiak , R. S. J. 1991 . Investigating a network model of word generation with positron emission tomography . Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (Biological Sciences) , 244 : 101 – 106 .
   Google Scholar
• Friston , K. J. , Liddle , P. F. , Frith , C. D. , Hirsch , S. R. and Frackowiak , R. S. 1995 . The left medial temporal region in schizophrenia A PET study . Brain , 115 : 367 – 382 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frith , C. D. 1987 . The positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia reflect impairments in the perception and initiation of action . Psychological Medicine , 17 : 631 – 648 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frith , C. D. 1992 . The cognitive neuropsychology of schizophrenia , Hove , , UK : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Ltd .
   Google Scholar
• Frith , C. D. and Done , D. J. 1983 . Stereotyped responding by schizophrenic patients on a two-choice guessing task . Psychological Medicine , 13 ( 4 ) : 779 – 786 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frith , C. D. and Done , D. J. 1986 . Routes to action in reaction time tasks . Psychol. Res. , 48 : 169 – 177 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frith , C. D. , Friston , K. J. , Herold , S. , Silbersweig , D. , Fletcher , P. , Cahill , C. , Dolan , R. J. , Frackowiak , R. S. J and Liddle , P. F. 1995 . Regional brain activity in chronic schizophrenic patients during the performance of a verbal fluency task . British Journal of Psychiatry , 167 : 343 – 349 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Frith , C. D. , Friston , K. J. , Liddle , P. F. and Frackowiak , R. S. J. 1991 . Willed action and the prefrontal cortex in man: A study with PET . Proceedings of the Royal Society of London (Biological Sciences) , 244 : 241 – 246 .
   Google Scholar
• Frith , C. D. , Leary , J. , Cahill , C. and Johnstone , E. 1991 . Performance on psychological tests. Demographic and clinical correlates of the results of these tests . British Journal of Psychiatry , 159 : 26 – 29 . Suppl. 13
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fukushima , J. , Fukushima , K. , Miyasak , K. and Yamashita , I. 1994 . Voluntary control of saccadic eye movement in patients with frontal cortical lesions and Parkinsonian patients in comparison with that in schizophrenics . Biol. Psychiatry , 36 : 21 – 30 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuller , R. , Nathaniel-James , D. , Ron , M. and Jahan-shahi , M. 1997 . Movement-related potentials preceding self-initiated vs externally-triggered movements in patients with schizophrenia . Journal of Psychophysiology , 11 : 281 – 282 .
   Google Scholar
• Funahashi , S. , Chaffee , M. V. and Goldman-Rakic , P. S. 1993 . Prefrontal neuronal activity in rhesus monkeys performing a delayed anti-saccade task . Nature , 365 ( 6448 ) : 753 – 756 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiou , N. , Bradshaw , J. L. , Iansek , R. , Phillips , J. G. , Mattingley , J. B. and Bradshaw , J. A. 1994 . Reduction in external cues and movement sequencing in Parkinson's disease . Journal of Neurology,NeurosurgeryandPsychiatry , 57 ( 3 ) : 368 – 370 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Georgiou , N. , Iansek , R. , Bradshaw , J. L. , Phillips , J. G. , Mattingley , J. B. and Bradshaw , J. A. 1993 . An evaluation of the role of internal cues in the pathogenesisofparkinsonianhypokinesia . Brain , 11 ( 6 ) : 1575 – 1587 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerfen , C. R. 1992 . The neostriatal mosaic: Multiple levels of compartmental organization . Trends in Neuroscience , 15 ( 4 ) : 133 – 139 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gerloff , C. , Corwell , B. , Chen , R. , Hallett , M. and Cohen , L. G. 1997 . Stimulation over the human supplementary motor area interferes with the organization of future elements in complex motor sequences . Brain , 120 ( 9 ) : 1587 – 1602 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg , G. 1985 . Supplementary motor area structure and function: Review and hypotheses . The Behavioural and Brain Sciences , 8 : 567 – 616 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg , G. and Bloom , K. K. 1990 . The alien hand sign. Localization, lateralization and recovery . Am. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil. , 69 ( 5 ) : 228 – 238 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goldberg , G. , Mayer , N. H. and Togila , J. U. 1981 . Medial frontal cortex infarction and the alien hand sign . Archives of Neurology , 38 ( 11 ) : 683 – 686 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goodrich , S. , Henderson , L. and Kennard , C. 1989 . On the existence of an attention-demanding process peculiar to simple reaction time: Converging evidence from Parkinson's disease . Cognitive Neuropsychology , 6 : 309 – 331 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grafman , J. , Vance , S. C. , Weingartner , H. , Salazar , A. M. and Amin , D. 1986 . The effects of lateralized frontal lesions on mood regulation . Brain , 109 : 1127 – 1148 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Grafton , W. T. , Waters , C. , Sutton , J. , Lew , M. F. and Couldwell , W. 1995 . Pallidotomy increases activity of motor association cortex in Parkin-son's disease: A positron emission tomographic study . Archives of Neurology , 37 : 776 – 783 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guitton , D. , Buchtel , H. A. and Douglas , R. M. 1985 . Frontal lobe lesions in man cause difficulties in suppressing reflexive glances and in generating goal-directed saccades . Experimental Brain Research , 58 ( 3 ) : 455 – 472 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halsband , U. and Freund , H. J. 1990 . Premotor cortex and conditional motor learning in man . Brain , 113 : 207 – 222 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Halsband , U. , Ito , N. , Tanji , J. and Freund , H. J. 1993 . The role of premotor cortex and the supplementary motor area in the temporal control of movement in man . Brain , 116 : 243 – 266 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Harrington , D. L. and Haaland , K. Y. 1991 . Sequencing in Parkinson's disease . Brain , 114 : 99 – 115 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hashimoto , S. , Gembra , H. and Sasaki , K. 1979 . Analysis of slow cortical potentials preceding self-paced hand movements in the monkey . Exp. Neurol. , 65 : 218 – 229 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holsapple , J. W. , Preston , J. B. and Strick , P. L. 1991 . The origin of thalamic inputs to the hand representation in the primary motor cortex . Journal of Neuroscience , 11 : 2644 – 2654 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hommer , D. W. , Clem , T. , Litman , R. and Pickar , D. 1991 . Maladaptive anticipatory saccades in schizophrenia . Biol. Psychiatry , 30 ( 8 ) : 779-774
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Horne , R. L. , Evans , F. J. and Orne , M. T. 1982 . Random number generation, psychopathology and therapeutic change . Archives of General Psychiatry , 39 ( 6 ) : 680 – 683 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humberstone , M. , Sawle , G. V. , Clare , S. , Hykin , J. , Coxon , R. , Botwell , R. , MacDonald , I. A. and Morris , P. G. 1997 . Functional magnetic resonance imaging of single motor events reveals human presupplementary motor area . Annual Neurology , 42 : 632 – 637 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hymas , N. , Lees , A. , Bolton , D. , Epps , K. and Head , D. 1991 . The neurology of obsessional slowness . Brain , 114 ( 5 ) : 2203 – 2233 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikeda , A. , Luders , H. O. , Burgess , R. C. and Shibasaki , H. 1992 . Movement-relatedpotentialsrecorded from supplementary motor area and primary motor area . Brain , 115 : 1017 – 1043 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ikeda , A. , Luders , H. O. , Collura , T. F. , Burgess , R. C. , Morris , H. H. , Toshiaki , H. and Shibasaki , H. 1996 . Subdural potentials at orbitofrontal and mesial prefrontal areas accompanying anticipation and decision making in humans: A comparison with bereitschaftspotential . EEG Clinical Electroencephalography , 98 : 206 – 212 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ingvar , D. G. and Franzen , G. 1974 . Abnormalities of cerebral blood flow distribution in patients with chronic schizophrenia . Acta Psychiatr. Scand. , 50 ( 4 ) : 425 – 462 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ivry , R. B. and Keele , S. E. 1989 . Timing functions of the cerebellum . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 1 : 134 – 150 .
   Google Scholar
• Jackson , S. R. , Jackson , G. M. , Harrison , J. , Henderson , L. and Kennard , C. 1995 . The internal control of action and Parkinson's disease: A kinematic analysis of visually guided and memory-guided pretension movements . Exp Brain Research , 50 : 1 – 16 .
   Google Scholar
• Jahanshahi , M. , Brown , R. G. and Marsden , C. D. 1992 . Simple and choice reaction time and the use of advance information for motor preparation in Parkinson's disease . Brain , 115 : 539 – 564 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jahanshahi , M. , Dirnberger , G. , Fuller , R. and Frith , C. 1997 . The functional anatomy of random number generation studied with PET . Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism , 17 : 643
   Google Scholar
• Jahanshahi , M. , Jenkins , I. H. , Brown , R. G. , Marsden , C. D. , Passingham , R. E. and Brooks , D. J. 1995a . Self-initiated versus externally triggered movements. I. An investigation using measurement of regional cerebral blood flow with PET and movement-related potentials in normal and Parkin-son's disease subjects (see comments) . Brain , 118 : 913 – 933 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jahanshahi , M. , Jenkins , I. H. , Brown , R. G. , Marsden , C. D. , Brooks , D. J. and Passingham , R. E. 1995b . Self-initiated versus externally-triggered movements: Effects of stimulus predictability assessed with Positron Emission Tomography . Journal of Psychophysiology , 9 : 177 – 178 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jahanshahi , M. , Profice , P. , Brown , R. G. , Ridding , M. C. , Dirnberger , G. and Rothwell , J. C. 1998 . The effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex on suppression of habitual counting during random number generation . Brain , 121 : 1533 – 1544 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James , W. 1910 . The principles of psychology , London : McMillan .
   Google Scholar
• Jenkins , I. H. , Brooks , D. J. , Nixon , P. D. , Frackowiak , R. S. J. and Passingham , R. E. 1994 . Motor sequence learning: A study with positron emission tomography . JournalofNeuroscience , 14 : 3775 – 3790 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jenkins , I. H. , Fernandez , W. , Playford , D. , Lees , A. J. , Frackowiak , R. S. J. , Passingham , R. E. and Brooks , D. J. 1992 . Impaired activation of the supplementary motor area in Parkinson's disease is reversed when akinesia is treated with apomorphine . Annals of Neurology , 32 : 749 – 757 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joel , D. and Weiner , I. 1994 . The organisation of the basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits: Open interconnected rather than closed segregated . Neuroscience , 63 ( 2 ) : 363 – 379 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jones-Gotman , M. and Milner , B. 1977 . Design fluency: The invention of nonsense drawings after focalcorticallesions . Neuropsychologia , 15 : 653 – 674 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jueptner , M. , Frith , C. D. , Brooks , D. J. , Frackowiak , R. S. J. and Passingham , R. E. 1997 . Anatomy of motor learning. II. Subcortical structures and learning by trial and error . Journal of Neuroscience , 77 ( 3 ) : 1325 – 1337 .
   Google Scholar
• Jueptner , M. , Rijntjes , M. , Weiller , C. , Faiss , J. H. , Timmann , D. , Mueller , S. P. and Diener , H. C. 1995 . Localization of a cerebellar timed process using PET . Neurology , 45 : 1540 – 1545 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jueptner , M. , Stephen , K. M. , Frith , C. D. , Brooks , D. J. , Frackowiak , R. S. J. and Passingham , R. E. 1997a . Anatomy of motor learning. I. Frontal cortex and attention to action . Journal of Neuroscience , 77 ( 3 ) : 1313 – 1324 .
   Google Scholar
• Keele , S. W. 1968 . Movement control in skilled motor performance . Psychological Bulletin , 70 : 387-248
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Klosterman , W. , Kompf , D. , Heide , W. , Verleger , R. , Wauschkuhn , B. and Seyfert , T. 1994 . The pre-saccadic cortical negativity prior to self-paced saccades with and without visual guidance . Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology , 91 : 219 – 228 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kornhuber , A. W. , Lang , M. , Lang , W. , Kure , W. and Kornhuber , H. H. 1990 . “ Will and frontal theta activity ” . In Psychophysiological brain research , Edited by: Brunia , C. H. M. , Gaillard , A. W. K. and Kok , A. Vol. 2 , 55 – 58 . Tilburg , , Netherlands : Tilburg University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kornhuber , H. H. and Deecke , L. 1965 . Hirnpoten-tialländerungen bei Willeitscaftspotential und reafferente Potentiale . Pflü;gers Arch , 284 : 1 – 17 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kurtzberg , D. and Vaughan , H. G. 1982 . Topographic analysis of human cortical potentials preceding self-initiated and visually triggered saccades . Brain Research , 243 : 1 – 9 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kutas , M. and Donchin , E. 1980 . Preparation to respond as manifested by movement-related brain potentials . Brain Research , 202 : 95 – 115 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang , W. , Cheyne , D. , Kristeva , R. , Beisteiner , R. , Lindinger , G. and Deecke , L. 1991 . Three-dimensional localization of SMA activity preceding voluntary movement. A study of electric and magnetic fields in a patient with infarction of the right supplementary motor area . Experimental Brain Research , 87 ( 3 ) : 688 – 695 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laplane , D. , Talairach , J. , Meininger , V. , Bancaud , J. and Orgogozo , J. M. 1977 . Clinicalconsequences of corticectomies involving the supplementary motorareain man . Journalof Neurological Sciences , 34 ( 3 ) : 301 – 314 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leonard , G. , Milner , B. and Jones , L. 1988 . Performance on unimanual and bimanual tapping masks by patients with lesion of the frontal or temporal lobe . Neuropsychologia , 26 ( 1 ) : 79 – 81 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lhermitte , F. 1983 . “Utilization behaviour” and its relation to lesions of the frontal lobe . Brain , 106 ( 2 ) : 137 – 255 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Libet , C. F. , Wright , E. W. and Gleason , C. A. 1982 . Readiness-potentialsprecedingrestricted “spontaneous” vs. pre-planned voluntary acts . Electroenceph. Clin. Neurophysiol. , 54 : 322 – 335 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Liddle , P. F. , Friston , K. J. , Frith , C. D. , Hirsch , S. R. , Jones , T. and Frackowiak , R. S. F. 1992 . Patterns of cerebral blood flow in schizophrenia . British Journal of Psychiatry , 160 : 179 – 186 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Liddle , P. F. and Morris , D. L. 1991 . Schizophrenic syndromes and frontal performance . British Journal of Psychiatry , 158 : 340 – 345 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Limousin , P. , Greene , J. , Pollack , P. , Rothwell , J. R. , Benabid , A. L. and Frackowiak , R. S. J. 1997 . Changes in cerebral activity pattern due to subthalamic nucleus or internal pallidum stimulation in Parkinson's disease . Archives of Neurology , 42 : 283 – 391 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Limousin , P. , Pollack , P. , Benazzouz , A. , Hoffman , D. , Le Bas , J. F. , Broussolle , E. , Perret , J. E. and Ben-abid , A. L. 1995 . Effect of Parkinsonian signs and symptoms of bilateral subthalamic nucleus stimulation . Lancet , 345 : 91 – 95 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lozano , A. M. , Lang , A. E. , Galvez-Jimenez , N. , Mi-yasaki , J. , Duff , J. , Hutchinson , W. D. and Dos-trovsky , J. O. 1995 . Effects of GPi pallidotomy on motor functions in Parkinson's disease (see comments) . Lancet , 346 ( 8987 ) : 1383 – 1387 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lueck , C. J. , Tanyeri , S. , Crawford , T. J. , Hudson , L. and Kennard , C. 1990 . Antisaccades and remembered saccades in Parkinson's Disease . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 53 : 284 – 288 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lyon , N. , Mejsholm , B. and Lyon , M. 1986 . Stereotyped responding by schizophrenic outpatients: Cross-cultural confirmation of perseverative switching on a two-choice task . Journal of Psychophysiology , 20 ( 2 ) : 137 – 150 .
   Google Scholar
• MacKinnon , C. D. , Kapur , S. , Hussey , D. , Verrier , M. C. , Houle , S. and Tatton , W. G. 1996 . Contributions of the mesial frontal cortex to the premovementpotentialsassociatedwith intermittent hand movements in humans . Human Brain Mapping , 4 : 1 – 22 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Malmo , H. P. 1974 . On frontal lobe functions: Psychiatric patient controls . Cortex , 10 : 231
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marin , R. S. 1997a . Apathy--Who cares? An introduction to apathy and related disorders of diminished motivation . Psychiatric Annals , 27 : 18 – 23 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marin , R. S. 1997b . Differential diagnosis of apathy and related disorders of diminished motivation . Psychiatric Annals , 27 : 30 – 33 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Martin , J. P. 1967 . The basal ganglia and posture , London : Pitman .
   Google Scholar
• Marsden , C. D. and Obeso , J. A. 1994 . The functions of the basal ganglia and the paradox of stereotaxic surgery in Parkinson's disease . Brain , 117 : 877 – 897 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mesulam , M. M. 1986 . Frontal cortex and behaviour . Archives of Neurology , 19 ( 4 ) : 320 – 325 .
   Google Scholar
• Miller , W. C. and DeLong , M. R. 1987 . “ Altered tonic activity of neurons in the globus pallidus and subthalamic nucleus in the primate MPTP model of parkinsonism ” . In The basal ganglia II , Edited by: Carpenter , M. B. and Jayaraman , A. 415 – 427 . New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Milner , B. 1964 . “ Some effects of frontal lobectomy in man ” . In The frontal granular cortex and behaviour , Edited by: Warren , J. M. and Akert , K. 313 – 331 . New York : McGraw Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Moster , M. L. and Goldberg , G. 1990 . Topography of scalp potentials preceding self-initiated saccades . Neurology , 40 : 644 – 648 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muri , R. M. , Rivaud , S. , Vermersch , A. I. , Leger , J. M. and Pierrot-Deseilligny , C. 1995 . Effects of tran-scranial magnetic stimulation over the region of the supplementary motor area during sequences of memory-guided saccades . Experimental Brain Research , 104 ( 1 ) : 163 – 166 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neshige , R. , Luders , H. and Shibasaki , H. 1988 . Recording of movement-related potentials from scalp and cortex in man . Brain , 111 : 719 – 736 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Norman , D. A. and Shallice , T. 1986 . “ Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behavior ” . In Consciousness and self-regulation , Advances in research and theory, Vol. 4 Edited by: Davidson , R. J. , Schwartz , G. E. and Shapiro , D. 1 – 18 . New York : Plenum Press .
   Google Scholar
• Nuechterlein , K. H. 1977 . Reaction time and attention in schizophrenia: A critical evaluation of the data and theories . Schizophrenia Bulletin , 3 ( 3 ) : 373 – 428 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Okano , K. and Tanji , J. 1987 . Neuronal activities in the primate motor fields of the agranular frontal cortex preceding visually triggered and self-paced movement . Experimental Brain Research , 66 : 155 – 166 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owen , A. M. , Downes , J. J. , Sahakian , B. J. , Polkey , C. E. and Robbins , T. W. 1990 . Planning and spatial working memory following frontal lobe lesions in man . Neuropsychologia , 28 : 1021 – 1034 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Owen , A. M. , Roberts , A. C. , Hodges , J. R. , Summers , B. A. , Polkey , C. E. and Robbins , T. W. 1993 . Contrasting mechanisms of impaired attentional set-shifting in patients with frontal lobe damage or Parkinson's disease . Brain , 116 : 1159 – 1175 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pantelis , C. , Barnes , T. E. , Nelson , H. E. , Tanner , S. , Weatherley , L. , Owen , A. M. and Robbins , T. W. 1997 . Frontal-striatal cognitive deficits in patients with chronic schizophrenia . Brain , 120 : 1823 – 1843 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Papa , S. M. , Artieda , J. and Obeso , J. A. 1991 . Cortical activity preceding self-initiated and externally triggered voluntary movement . Movement Disorders , 6 : 217 – 224 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Park , S. and Holzman , P. 1992 . Schizophrenics show spatial working memory deficits . Archives of General Psychiatry , 49 ( 12 ) : 975 – 982 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Passingham , R. E. 1985 . Memory of monkeys (Macaca mulatta) with lesions in prefrontal cortex . Behavioral Neuroscience , 99 : 3 – 21 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Passingham , R. E. 1997 . “ Functional organisation of the motor system ” . In Human brain function , Edited by: Frackowiak , R. S. J. , Friston , K. J. , Frith , C. D. , Dolan , R. J. and Mazziotta , J. C. San Diego , CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Passingham , R. E. , Thaler , D. E. and Chen , Y. 1989 . “ Supplementary motor cortex and self-initiated movement ” . In Neural programming , Edited by: Ito , M. 13 – 24 . Karger : Basel .
   Google Scholar
• Paulesu , E. , Frith , C. D. and Frackowiak , R. S. J. 1993 . The neural correlates of the verbal component of working memory . Nature , 362 : 342 – 345 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paus , T. 1991 . Two modes of central gaze fixation maintenance and oculomotor distractibility in schizophrenics . SchizophreniaResearch , 5 : 145 – 152 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paus , T. , Petrides , M. , Evans , A. C. and Meyer , E. 1993 . Role of the human anterior cingulate cortex in the control of oculomotor, manual, and speech responses: A positron emission tomography study . Journal of Neuroscience , 70 : 453 – 469 .
   Google Scholar
• Penfield , W. and Welch , K. 1949 . The supplementary motor area in other cerebral cortex of man . Transactions of the American Neurological Association , 74 : 179 – 184 .
   Google Scholar
• Percheron , G. and Filion , M. 1991 . Parallel processing in the basal ganglia: Up to a point (letter; comment) . Trends in Neuroscience , 14 : 55 – 59 . Comment on: Trends in Neuroscience, 1990. 13, 241–244; Trends in Neuroscience,1990, 13, 266–271
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Perret , E. 1974 . The left frontal lobe of man and the suppression of habitual responses in verbal categorical behaviour . Neuropsychologia , 12 ( 3 ) : 323 – 330 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petersen , S. E. , Fox , P. T. , Posner , M. I. , Nintus , M. and Raichle , M. E. 1988 . Positron emissiontomographic studies of the cortical anatomy of single word processing . Nature , 331 : 585 – 589 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Petrides , M. , Alivisatos , B. , Meyer , R. and Evans , A. C. 1993 . Functional activation of the human frontal cortex during the performance of verbal working memory tasks . Proceedings of the National Academy of Science , 90 : 878 – 882 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pierrot-Deseilligny , C. , Rivaud , S. , Gaymard , B. and Agid , Y . 1991 . Cortical control of memory-guided saccades in man . Experimental Brain Research , 83 : 607 – 617 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Playford , D. , Jenkins , H. , Passingham , R. , Nutt , J. , Frackowiak , R. S. J. and Brooks , D. 1992 . Impaired mesial frontal and putamen activation in Parkinson's disease: A PET study . Annals of Neurology , 32 : 151 – 161 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Powell , J. H. , Al-Adawi , S. , Morgan , J. and Greenwood , R. J. 1996 . Motivational deficits after brain injury: Effects of bromocriptine in 11 patients . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 60 : 416 – 421 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Praamstra , P. , Stegeman , D. F. , Horstink , M. W. , Brunia , C. H. and Cools , A. R. 1995 . Movement-related potentials preceding voluntary movement are modulated by the mode of movement selection . Experimental Brain Research , 103 ( 3 ) : 429 – 439 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Praamstra , P. , Stegeman , D. F. , Horstink , M. W. and Cools , A. R. 1996 . Dipole source analysis suggests selective modulation of the supplementary motor area contribution to the readiness potential . Electroencephalography and Clin. Neurophysiology , 98 ( 6 ) : 468 – 477 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pritchard , W. S. 1986 . Cognitiveevent-related potential correlates of schizophrenia . Psychological Bulletin , 100 ( 1 ) : 43 – 66 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Raichle , M. E. , Fiez , J. A. , Videen , T. O. , MacLeod , A. M. , Pardo , J. V. , Fox , P. T. and Petersen , S. E. 1994 . Practice-related changes in human brain functional anatomy during nonmotor learning . Cerebral Cortex , 4 ( 1 ) : 8 – 26 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rao , S. S. , Harrington , D. L. , Haaland , K. Y. , Bobholz , J. A. , Cox , R. W. and Binder , J. R. 1997 . Distributed neural systems underlying the timing of movements . Journal of Neuroscience , 17 ( 14 ) : 5528 – 5535 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rascol , O. , Sabatini , U. , Fabre , N. , Brefel , C. , Loub-noux , I. , Celsis , P. , Senard , J. M. , Montastruc , J. L. and Chollet , F. 1997 . The ipsilateral hemisphere is overactive during hand movements in akinetic parkinsonian patients . Brain , 120 ( 1 ) : 103 – 110 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rektor , I. , Feve , A. , Buser , P. , Bathien , N. and La-marche , M. 1994 . Intracerebral recording of movement-related readiness potentials: An exploration in epileptic patients . EEG & Clinical Neurophysiology , 90 : 273 – 283 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ro , T. , Henik , A. , Machado , L. and Rafal , R. D. 1997 . Transcranial magnetic stimulation of the prefrontal cortex delays contralateral endogenous saccades . Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience , 9 ( 4 ) : 433 – 440 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robbins , T. W. 1990 . The case of frontostriatal dysfunction in schizophrenia . Schizophrenia Bulletin , 16 : 391 – 402 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robbins , T. W. 1991 . “ Cognitive deficits in schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease: Neural basis and the role of dopamine ” . In The mesolimbic dopamine system: From motivation to action , Edited by: Wilner , P. and Scheel-Kruger , J. London : John Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Robertson , C. , Hazlewood , R. and Rawson , M. D. 1996 . The effects of Parkinson's disease on the capacity to generate information randomly . Neuropsychologia , 34 : 1069 – 1078 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosahl , S. K. and Knight , R. T. 1995 . Role of prefrontal cortex in generation of the contingent negative variation . Cerebral Cortex , 5 ( 2 ) : 123 – 134 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rosenberg , S. , Weber , N. , Crocq , M. , Duval , F. and Macher , J. 1990 . Random number generation by normal, alcoholic and schizophrenic subjects . Psychological Medicine , 20 : 953 – 960 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roy , E. A. , Saint-Cyr , J. , Taylor , A. and Lang , A. 1993 . Movementsequencingdisorders in Parkinson's disease . International Journal of Neuroscience , 73 : 183 – 194 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samuel , M. , Ceballos-Baumann , A. O. , Blin , J. , Uema , T. , Boecker , H. , Passingham , R. E. and Brooks , D. J. 1997a . Evidence for lateral pre-motor and parietal overactivity in Parkinson's disease during sequential and bimanual movements: A PET study . Brain , 120 : 963 – 976 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Samuel , M. , Ceballos-Baumann , A. O. , Turjanski , N. , Boecker , H. , Gorospe , A. , Linazasoro , G. , Holmes , A. P. , DeLong , M. , Vitek , J. L. , Thomas , D. G. T. , Quinn , N. P. , Obeso , J. A. and Brooks , D. J. 1997b . Pallidotomy in Parkinson's disease increases supplementary motor area and prefrontal activation during performance of volitional movements. An H215O PET study . Brain , 120 : 1301 – 1313 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sasaki , K. and Gemba , H. 1981 . Cortical field potentials preceding self-paced and visually initiated movements in one and the same monkey and influences of cerebellar hemispheroctomy upon the potentials . Neuroscience Letters , 25 : 287 – 292 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawle , G. , Brooks , D. J. , Marsden , C. D. and Frack-owiak , R. S. J. 1991 . Corticobasaldegeneration. A unique pattern of regional cortical oxygen hypometabolism and striatal fluorodopa demonstrated by positron emission tomography . Brain , 114 ( 1b ) : 541 – 556 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sawle , G. , Hymas , N. F. , Lees , A. J. and Frackowiak , R. S. J. 1991 . Obsessional slowness. Functional studies with positron emission tomography . Brain , 114 ( 5 ) : 2191 – 2202 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schmand , B. , Kuipers , T. , Van der Gaag , M. , Bos-veld , J. , Bulthuis , F. and Jellema , M. 1994 . Cognitive disorders and negative symptoms as correlates of motivational deficits in psychotic patients . Psychological Medicine , 24 ( 4 ) : 869 – 884 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schultz , W. 1997 . Dopamine neurons and their role in reward mechanisms . Current Opinion in Neurobiology , 7 : 191 – 197 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwab , R. S. , Chafter , M. E. and Walker , S. 1954 . Control of two simultaneous voluntary motor acts in Parkinsonism . Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry , 72 : 591 – 598 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schwartz , F. , Carr , A. L. , Munich , R. L. , Glauber , S. , Lesser , B. and Murray , J. 1989 . Reaction time impairment in schizophrenia and affective illness: The role of attention . Biological Psychiatry , 25 : 540 – 548 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schwartz , F. , Munich , R. F. , Carr , A. F. , Bartuch , E. , Lesser , B. , Rescigno , D. and Viegener , B. 1991 . Negative symptoms and reaction time in schizophrenia . Journal of Psychiatry Research , 25 ( 3 ) : 131 – 140 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seidman , L. J. , Yurfelun-Todd , D. , Kremen , W. S. , Woods , B. T. , Goldstein , J. M. , Faraone , S. V. and Tsuang , M. T. 1994 . Relationships of prefrontal and temporal lobe MRI measures to neuropsychologicalperformancein chronic schizophrenia . Biological Psychiatry , 35 : 235 – 246 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Seitz , R. J. , Roland , E. , Bohm , C. , Greitz , T. and Stone-Elander , S. 1990 . Motor learning in man: A positron emission tomographic study . Neuro-report , 1 ( 1 ) : 57 – 60 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shallice , T. 1982 . Specific impairments of planning . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London , 298 : 199 – 209 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shallice , T. 1988 . From neuropsychology to mental structure , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Shallice , T. , Burgess , P. W. , Schon , F. and Baxter , D. M. 1989 . The origins of utilization behaviour . Brain , 112 : 1587 – 1598 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sheridan , M. R. , Flowers , K. A. and Hurrell , J. 1987 . Programming and execution of movement in Parkinson's disease . Brain , 10 : 1247 – 1271 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shibasaki , H. , Barrett , G. , Halliday , E. and Halliday , A. M. 1980 . Components of the movement-related cortical potential and their scalp topograph . Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology , 49 : 213 – 226 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shibasaki , H. , Shima , F. and Kuroiwa , Y. 1978 . Clinical studies of the movement-related cortical potential (MP) and the relationship between the dentatorubrothalamic pathway and readiness potential (RP) . Journal of Neuroscience , 219 : 15 – 25 .
   Google Scholar
• Shimizu , N. and Okiyama , R. 1993 . Bereitschaft-potential preceding voluntary saccades is abnormal in patients with Parkinson's disease . Advances in Neurology , 60 : 398 – 402 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Siegfried , J. and Lippitz , B. 1994 . Bilateral chronic electrostimulation of ventroposterolateral pal-lidum: A new therapeutic approach for alleviat-ing all parkinsonism symptoms . Neurosurgery , 35 : 1126 – 1130 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Simpson , J. A. and Khuraibet , A. J. 1987 . Readiness potential of cortical area 6 preceding self paced movement in Parkinson's disease . Journal of Neurology,NeurosurgeryandPsychiatry , 50 : 1184 – 1191 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh , J. and Knight , R. 1990 . Frontal contribution to voluntary movements in humans . Brain Research , 531 : 45 – 54 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Singh , J. , Knight , R. T. , Rosenlicht , N. , Kotun , J. M. , Beckley , D. J. and Woods , D. L. 1992 . Abnormal premovement brain potentials in schizophrenia . Schizophrenia Research , 8 : 31 – 41 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Slade , P. D. 1971 . Rate of information processing in a schizophrenic and a control group: The effect of increasing task complexity . British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 10 : 152 – 159 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Soliveri , P. , Brown , R. G. , Jahanshahi , M. and Marsden , C. D. 1992 . The effect of practice on the performance of a skilled motor task in patients with Parkinson's disease . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 55 : 454 – 460 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spatt , J. and Goldenberg , G. 1993 . Components of random generation by normal subjects and patients with dysexecutive syndrome . Brain Cognition , 23 ( 3 ) : 231 – 242 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spence , S. A. , Brooks , D. J. , Hirsch , S. R. , Liddle , P. F. , Meehan , J. and Grasby , P. M. 1997 . A PET study of voluntary movement in schizophrenic patients experiencing passivity phenomena (delusions of alien control) . Brain , 120 : 1997 – 2011 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Spence , S. A. , Hirsch , S. R. , Brooks , D. J. and Grasby , P. M. in press . PET studies of prefrontal activity in schizophrenics and normals: Evidence for remission of “hypofrontality” with recovery from acute schizophrenia . British Journal of Psychiatry ,
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Starkstein , S. E. , Mayberg , H. S. , Presiosi , T. J. , An-drezejewski , P. , Leiguarda , R. and Robinson , R. G. 1992 . Reliability, validity and clinical correlates of apathy in Parkinson's disease . Journal of Neuropsychiatry, Clin. Neuroscience , 4 ( 2 ) : 134 – 139 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stelmach , G. E. and Worringham , C. J. 1988 . The control of bimanual aiming movements in Park-inson's disease . Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry , 51 ( 2 ) : 223 – 231 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stuss , D. T. and Benson , D. F. 1984 . Neuropsychological studies of frontal lobes . Psychological Bulletin , 95 : 3 – 28 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tanji , J. and Kurata , K. 1982 . Comparison of movement-related activity in two motor cortical areas of primates . Journal of Neuroscience , 48 : 633 – 653 .
   Google Scholar
• Tanji , J. and Kurata , K. 1985 . Contrasting neuronal activity in supplementary and precentral motor cortex of monkeys. I. Responses to instructions determining motor responses to forthcoming signals of different modalities . Journal of Neuroscience , 53 : 129 – 141 .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , A. E. , Saint-Cyr , J. A. and Lang , A. E. 1986 . Frontal lobe dysfunction in Parkinson's disease . Brain , 109 : 845 – 883 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thaler , D. , Chen , Y. C. , Nixon , P. D. , Stern , C. E. and Passingham , R. E. 1995 . The functions of the medial premotor cortex. Simple learned movements . Experimental Brain Research , 102 ( 3 ) : 445 – 460 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thaler , D. E. , Rolls , E. T. and Passingham , R. E. 1988 . Neuronal activity of the supplementary motor area (SMA) during internally and externally triggered wrist movements . Neuroscience Letters , 93 ( 2-3 ) : 264 – 269 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thickbroom , G. W. and Mastaglia , F. L. 1985 . Cerebral events preceding self-paced and visually triggered saccades. A study of presaccadic potentials . Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology , 62 : 277 – 289 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thompson , P. D. and Marsden , C. D. 1992 . Cortico-basal degeneration . Baillieres. Clin. Neurology , 1 : 677 – 686 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Touge , T. , Werhahn , K. J. , Rothwell , J. C. and Marsden , C. D. 1995 . Movement-related cortical potentials preceding repetitive and random-choice hand movements in Parkinson's disease . Archives of Neurology , 37 ( 6 ) : 791 – 799 .
   Google Scholar
• Venables , P. H. 1958 . Stimulus complexity as a determinant of the reaction time of schizophrenics . Canadian Journal of Psychology , 12 : 187 – 190 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verfaellie , M. and Heilman , K. M. 1987 . Response preparation and response inhibition after lesions of the medial frontal lobe . Neurologie , 44 : 1265 – 1271 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vidailhet , M. , Stocchi , F. , Rothwell , J. C. , Thompson , P. D. , Day , B. L. , Brooks , D. J. and Marsden , C. D. 1993 . TheBereitschaftspotential preceding simple foot movement and initiation of gait in Parkinson's disease . Neurology , 43 : 1784 – 1788 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walter , W. G. , Copper , R. , Aldridge , V. J. , McCallum , W. C. and Winter , A. L. 1994 . Contingent negative variation: An electrical sign of sensorimotor association and expectancy in the human brain . Nature , 203 : 380 – 384 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberger , D. R. , Berman , K. F. and Zec , F. R. 1986 . Physiological dysfunction of DLPC in schizophrenia . Archives of General Psychology , 43 : 114 – 124 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weinberger , D. R. , Mattay , V. , Callicott , J. , Kotria , K. , Santha , A. , Van Gelderen , P. , Duyn , J. , Moonen , C. and Frank , J. 1996 . fMRI applications in schizophreniaresearch . Neuroimage , 4 : S118 – S126 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss , P. , Stelmach , G. E. and Hefter , H . 1997 . Programming of a movement sequence in Parkin-son's disease . Brain , 120 : 91 – 102 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westphal , K. P. , Grozinger , B. , Becker , W. , Diek-mann , U. and Kornhuber , H. H. 1992 . Spectral analysis of EEG during self-paced movements: Differences between untreated schizophrenics and normal controls . Biological Psychiatry , 31 : 1020 – 1037 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westphal , K. P. , Grozinger , B. , Diekmann , V. , Scherb , W. , Reess , J. , Leibing , U. and Kornhuber , H. H. 1990a . Slower theta activity over the midfrontal cortex in schizophrenic patients . Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica , 81 ( 2 ) : 132 – 138 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westphal , K. P. , Grozinger , B. , Diekmann , V. , Scherb , W. , Reess , J. and Kornhuber , H. H. 1990b . EEG-spectra parameters distinguish pathophysiological and pharmacological influences on the EEG in treated schizophrenics . Arch. Italian Biol. , 128 ( 1 ) : 55 – 66 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wichmann , T. and DeLong , M. R. 1993 . “ Pathophysiology of Parkinsonian motor abnormalities ” . In Advances in neurology , Edited by: Narabayashi , H. , Nagastu , T. , Yanagisawa , N. and Mizuno , Y. Vol. 60 , New York : Raven Press .
   Google Scholar
• Wichmann , T. and DeLong , M. R. 1996 . Functional and pathophysiological models of the basal ganglia . Current Opinions in Neurobiology , 6 ( 6 ) : 751 – 758 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wiegersma , S. , Van der Scheer , E. and Hijman , R. 1990 . Subjective ordering, short-term memory, and the frontal lobes . Neuropsychologia , 28 ( 1 ) : 95 – 98 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams , R. M. and Hemsley , D. R. 1986 . Choice reactiontimeperformanceinhospitalized schizophrenic patients and depressed patients . European Archives of Psychiatry and Neurological Science , 236 : 169 – 173 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilson , S. A. K. 1925 . Disorders of motility and of muscle tone, with special reference to the corpus striatum . Lancet , 2 : 1 – 10 . 53 – 62 . 169 – 178 . 215 – 219 . 268 – 276 .
   Google Scholar
• Wolkin , A. , Sanfilip , M. , Wolf , A. , Angrist , B. , Brodie , J. and Rotrosen , J. 1992 . Negative symptoms and hypofrontality in chronic schizophrenia . Archives of General Psychiatry , 49 : 959 – 965 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar