Do maternal screening tests provide psychologically meaningful results? Cognitive psychology in an applied setting

References

• Abramsky , L. and Fletcher , O. 2002 . Interpreting information: what is said, what is heard—a questionnaire study of health professionals and members of the public. . Prenatal Diagnosis , 22 : 1188 – 1194 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bogardus , S. , Holmboe , E. and Jekel , J. 1999 . Perils, pitfalls, and possibilities in talking about medical risk. . Journal of the American Medical Association , 281 : 1037 – 1041 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bourne , L. E. , Dominowski , R. L. and Loftus , E. F. 1979 . Cognitive processes , Englewood Cliffs, NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Bramwell , R. and Carter , D. 2001 . An exploration of midwives' and obstetricians' knowledge of genetic screening in pregnancy and their perception of appropriate counselling. . Midwifery , 17 : 133 – 141 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bramwell , R. and Wade , S. 1999 . “ Down's Syndrome screening: how do they know? ” . In Genetic information: acquisition access, and control , Edited by: Thompson , A and Chadwick , & R . 183 – 190 . New York : Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Casscells , W. , Schoenberger , A. and Graboys , T. 1978 . Interpretation by physicians of clinical laboratory results. . The New England Journal of Medicine , 299 : 999 – 1001 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chitty , L. 1998 . Prenatal screening for chromosome abnormalities. . British Medical Bulletin , 54 (4) : 839 – 856 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Copel , J. and Bahado‐Singh , R. 1999 . Prenatal screening for Down's Syndrome—a search for the family's values. . The New England Journal of Medicine , 341 (7) : 521 – 522 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cosmides , L. and Tooby , J. 1996 . Are humans good intuitive statisticians after all? Rethinking some conclusions from the literature on judgment under uncertainty. . Cognition , 58 : 1 – 73 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dormandy , E. R. , Michie , S. , Weinman , J. and Marteau , T. M. 2002 . Variation in uptake of serum screening: the role of service delivery. . Prenatal Diagnosis , 22 : 67 – 69 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Eddy , D. 1982 . “ Probabilistic reasoning in clinical medicine: problems and opportunities. ” . In Judgement under uncertainty: heuristics and biases , Edited by: Kahneman , H , Slovic , P and Tversky , A . 249 – 267 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Expert Maternity Group . 1993 . Changing childbirth: report of the Expert Maternity Group , London : HMSO .
   Google Scholar
• Faden , R. , Chwalow , J. , Orel‐Crosby , E. , Holtzman , N. , Chase , G. and Leonard , C. 1985 . What participants understand about a maternal serum alpha‐fetoprotein screening program. . American Journal of Public Health , 75 (12) : 1381 – 1384 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ghosh , A. K. , Ghosh , K. and Erwin , P. J. 2004 . Do medical students and physicians understand probability? . Quarterly Journal of Medicine , 97 : 53 – 55 .
   Google Scholar
• Gigerenzer , G. 2002 . Reckoning with risk: learning to live with uncertainty , London : Penguin Books .
   Google Scholar
• Gigerenzer , G. and Hoffrage , U. 1995 . How to improve Bayesian reasoning without instruction: frequency formats. . Psychological Review , 102 : 684 – 704 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gigerenzer , G. and Selten , R. 2001 . “ Rethinking rationality. ” . In Bounded rationality: the adaptive toolbox , Edited by: Gigerenzer , G and Selten , R . 1 – 12 . Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Gilbert , R. , Augood , C. , Gupta , R. , Ades , A. , Logan , S. , Sculpher , M. and Van Der Meulen , J. 2001 . Screening for Down's Syndrome: effects, safety, and cost effectiveness of first and second trimester strategies. . British Medical Journal , 323 (7310) : 423
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Green , J. M. , Hewison , J. , Bekker , H. L. , Bryant , L. D. and Cuckle , H. S. 2004 . Psychosocial aspects of genetic screening of pregnant women and newborns: a systematic review. . Health Technology Assessment , 8 (33)
   Google Scholar
• Green , J. , Statham , H. and Snowdon , C. 1992 . “ Screening for foetal abnormalities: attitudes and experiences. ” . In Obstetrics in the 1990s: current controversies , Edited by: Chard , T and Richards , M . 65 – 89 . London : McKeith Press .
   Google Scholar
• Green , J. , Statham , H. and Snowdon , C. 1993 . Women's knowledge of prenatal screening tests. 1: relationships with hospital screening policy and demographic factors. . Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology , 11 : 11 – 20 .
   Google Scholar
• Hammerton , M. 1973 . A case of radical probability estimation. . Journal of Experimental Psychology , 101 (2) : 252 – 254 .
   Google Scholar
• Hewison , J. , Cuckle , H. , Baillie , C. , Sehmi , I. , Lindow , S. , Jackson , F. and Batty , J. 2001 . Use of videotapes for viewing at home to inform choice in Down Syndrome screening: a randomised controlled trial. . Prenatal Diagnosis , 21 : 146 – 149 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hoffrage , U. and Gigerenzer , G. 1998 . Using natural frequencies to improve diagnostic inferences. . Academic Medicine , 73 : 538 – 540 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hofman , K. A. , Tambor , E. S. , Chase , G. A. , Geller , G. , Faden , R. R. and Holtzman , N. A. 1993 . Physicians' knowledge of genetics and genetic tests. . Academic Medicine , 68 : 625 – 632 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jepson , R. , Forbes , C. , Sowden , A. and Lewis , R. 2001 . Increasing informed uptake and non‐uptake of screening: evidence from a systematic review. . Health Expectations , 4 : 116 – 130 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kahneman , D. and Tversky , A. 1972 . Subjective probability: a judgment of representativeness. . Cognitive Psychology , 3 : 430 – 454 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Keenan , K. L. , Basso , D. , Goldkrand , J. and Butler , W. J. 1991 . Low levels of maternal serum alpha‐fetoprotein: its associated anxiety and the effects of genetic counseling. . American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology , 164 : 54 – 56 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kidd , J. , Cook , R. and Marteau , T. 1993 . Is routine AFP screening in pregnancy reassuring? . Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 37 : 717 – 722 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lloyd , A. 2001 . The extent of patient's understanding of the risk of treatments. . Quality in Health Care , 10 (1) : i14 – i18 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marteau , T. 1989 . Psychological costs of screening. . British Medical Journal , 299 : 527
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marteau , T. 1995 . Towards informed decisions about prenatal testing: a review. . Prenatal Diagnosis , 15 : 1215 – 1226 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marteau , T. and Slack , J. 1992 . “ Psychological implications of prenatal diagnosis for patients and health professionals. ” . In Prenatal diagnosis and screening , Edited by: Brock , D , Rodeck , C and Ferguson‐Smith , M . 663 – 673 . London : Churchill Livingstone .
   Google Scholar
• Marteau , T. , Cook , R. , Kidd , J. , Michie , S. , Johnston , M. , Slack , J. and Shaw , R. 1992a . The psychological effects of false‐positive results in prenatal screening for foetal abnormality: a prospective study. . Prenatal Diagnosis , 12 : 205 – 214 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marteau , T. , Dormandy , E. and Michie , S. 2001 . A measure of informed choice. . Health Expectations , 4 : 99 – 108 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marteau , T. , Johnston , M. , Plenicar , M. , Shaw , R. and Slack , J. 1988 . Development of a self‐administered questionnaire to measure women's knowledge of prenatal screening and diagnostic tests. . Journal of Psychosomatic Research , 32 (4/5) : 403 – 408 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Marteau , T. , Plenicar , M. and Kidd , J. 1993 . Obstetricians presenting amniocentesis to pregnant women: practice observed. . Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology , 11 : 3 – 10 .
   Google Scholar
• Marteau , T. , Saidi , G. , Goodburn , S. , Lawton , J. , Michie , S. and Bobrow , M. 2000 . Numbers or words? A randomized controlled trial of presenting screen negative results to pregnant women. . Prenatal Diagnosis , 20 : 714 – 718 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marteau , T. , Slack , J. , Kidd , J. and Shaw , R. 1992b . Presenting a routine screening test in antenatal care: practice observed. . Public Health , 106 (2) : 131 – 141 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Martignon , L. 2001 . “ Comparing fast and frugal heuristics and optimal models. ” . In Bounded rationality: the adaptive toolbox , Edited by: Gigerenzer , G and Selten , R . 147 – 171 . Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Rapp , R. 1999 . Testing women, testing the foetus: the social impact of amniocentesis in America , New York & London : Routledge .
   Google Scholar
• Roelofsen , E. , Kamerbeek , L. and Tymstra , T. 1993 . Chances and choices. psycho‐social consequences of maternal serum screening. A report from The Netherlands. . Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology , 11 : 41 – 47 .
   Google Scholar
• Rothman , B. 2001 . The book of life , Boston, MA : Beacon Press .
   Google Scholar
• Sadler , M. 1997 . Serum screening for Down's Syndrome: how much do health professionals know? . British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology , 104 : 176 – 179 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Santalahti , P. , Aro , A. , Hemminki , E. , Helenius , H. and Ryynanen , M. 1998 . On what grounds do women participate in prenatal screening? . Prenatal Diagnosis , 18 : 153 – 165 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Santalahti , P. , Latikka , A. M. , Ryynänen , M. and Hemminki , E. 1996 . Women's experiences of prenatal serum screening. . Birth , 23 : 101 – 107 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shelford , G. 2003 . Risk, statistics, and the individual. . British Medical Journal , 327 (7417) : 757
   Google Scholar
• Simon , H. A. 1982 . Models of bounded rationality, Vol. 2. Behavioral economics and business organization , Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , D. , Shaw , R. and Marteau , T. 1994a . Informed consent to undergo serum screening for Down's Syndrome: the gap between policy and practice. . British Medical Journal , 309 : 776
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , D. , Slack , J. , Shaw , R. and Marteau , T. 1994b . Lack of knowledge in health professionals: a barrier to providing information to patients? . Quality in Health Care , 3 : 75 – 78 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith , D. , Shaw , R. , Slack , J. and Marteau , T. 1995 . Training obstetricians and midwives to present screening tests: evaluation of two brief interventions. . Prenatal Diagnosis , 15 : 317 – 324 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Smith , R. 2003 . Communicating risk: the main work of doctors (Editor's choice). . British Medical Journal , 327 (7417)
   Google Scholar
• Statham , H. and Green , J. 1993 . Serum screening for Down's Syndrome: some women's experiences. . British Medical Journal , 307 : 174 – 176 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steurer , J. , Fischer , J. , Bachmann , L. , Koller , M. and ter Riet , G. 2002 . Communicating accuracy of tests to general practitioners: a controlled study. . British Medical Journal , 324 : 824 – 826 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Thornton , J. , Hewison , J. , Lilford , R. and Vail , A. 1995 . A randomised trial of three methods of giving information about prenatal testing. . British Medical Journal , 311 : 1127 – 1130 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wald , N. 2001 . The definition of screening. . Journal of Medical Screening , 8 : 1
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wald , N. , Kennard , A. , Densem , J. , Cuckle , H. , Chard , T. and Butler , L. 1992 . Antenatal maternal serum screening for Down's Syndrome: results of a demonstration project. . British Medical Journal , 305 : 391 – 394 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams , C. , Alderson , P. and Farsides , B. 2002 . What constitutes ‘balanced information in the practitioners’ portrayals of Down's Syndrome? . Midwifery , 18 : 230 – 237 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson , J. M. G. and Junger , G. 1968 . Principles and practice of screening for disease. . Public Health Paper , 34
   Google Scholar