Health risks to infants from exposure to PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs

References

• Abraham , K. , Knoll , A. , Ende , M. , Papke , O. and Helge , H. 1996 . Intake, fecal excretion, and body burden of poly-chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in breast-fed and formula-fed infants . Pediatric Research , 40 : 671 – 679 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ahlborg , U. G. , Hanberg , A. and Kenne , K. 1992 . Risk assessment of polychlorinated biphenyls, (PCBs), Nordic Council of Ministers . Nord , 26 1992
   Google Scholar
• Alaluusua , S. , Lukinmaa , P.-L. , Vartiainen , T. , Partanen , M. , Torppa , J. and Tuomisto , J. 1996 . Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans via mother's milk may cause developmental defects in the child's teeth . Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology , 1 : 193 – 197 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Atuma , S. S. , Hansson , L. , Johnsson , H. , Slorach , S. , De Wit , C. A. and Linstrom , G. 1998 . Organochlorine pesticides, PCBs and dioxins in human milk from Swedish mothers . Food Additives and Contaminants , 15 : 142 – 150 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Beck , H. , Dross , A. and Mathar , W. 1994 . PCDD and PCDF exposure and levels in humans in Germany . Environmental Health Perspectives , 102 : 173 – 185 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Brouwer , A. , Ahlborg , U. G. , van den Berg , M. , Birnbaum , L. S. , Boersma , E. R. , Bosveld , B. , Denison , M. S. , Gray , L. E. , Hagmar , L. , Holene , E. , Huisman , M. , Jacobson , S. W. , Jacobson , J. L. , Koopman-Esseboom , C. , Koppe , J. G. , Kulig , B. M. , Morse , D. C. , Muckle , G. , Peterson , R. E. , Sauer , P. J. J. , Seegal , R. F. , Smits van prooije , A. E. , Touwen , B. C. L. , Weisglas-Kuperus , N. and Winneke , G. 1995 . Functional aspects of developmental toxicity of polyhalogenated aromatic hydrocarbons in experimental animals and human infants . European Journal of Pharmacology , 293 : 1 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , Y. C. and Hsu , C. C. 1994 . Effects of prenatal exposure to PCBs on the neurological function of children, a neuropsychological and neurophysiological study . Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology , 36 : 312 – 320 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , Y. C. , Guo , Y. L. , Hsu , C. C. and Rogan , W. J. 1992 . Cognitive development of Yucheng (‘oil disease’) children prenatally exposed to heat degraded PCBs . Journal of the American Medical Association , 268 : 3213 – 3218 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dahl , P. , Lindström , G. , Wiberg , K. and Rappe , C. 1995 . Absorption of PCBs, dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans by breast fed infants . Chemosphere , 30 : 2297 – 2306 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dar , E. , Kanarek , M. S. , Anderson , H. A. and Sonzogni , W. C. 1992 . Fish consumption and reproductive outcomes in Green-Bay, Wisconsin . Environmental Research , 59 : 189 – 201 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fein , G. G. , Jacobson , J. L. , Jacobson , S. W. , Schwartz , P. M. and Dowler , J. K. 1984 . Prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls, effects on birth size and gestational age . Journal of Pediatrics , 105 : 315 – 320 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gladen , B. C. and Rogan , W. J. 1991 . Effects of perinatal polychlorinated biphenys and dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethene on later development . Journal of Pediatrics , 119 : 58 – 63 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gladen , B. C. , Rogan , W. J. , Hardy , P. , Thullen , J. , Tingelstad , J. and Tully , M. 1988 . Development after exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethene transplacentally and through human milk . Journal of Pediatrics , 113 : 991 – 995 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hsu , C.-C. , Yu , M.-L. M. , Chen , Y.-C. J. , Guo , Y.-L. L. and Rogan , W. J. 1994 . The Yu-cheng rice oil poisoning incident. Dioxins and Health , Edited by: Schecter , A. 661 – 684 . NY : Plenum Pub. Corp .
   Google Scholar
• Huisman , M. , Koopman-Esseboom , C. , Lanting , C. I. , Vanderpaauw , C. G. , Tuinstra , L. G. M. T. , Fidler , V. , Weisglaskuperus , N. , Sauer , P. J. J. , Boersma , E. R. and Touwen , B. C. L. 1995 . Neurological condition in 18-monthold children perinatally exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins . Early Human Development , 43 : 165 – 176 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Humphrey , H. E. B. 1987 . The human population—an ultimate receptor for aquatic contaminants . Hydrobiologia , 149 : 75 – 80 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ilsen , A. , Briet , J. M. , Koppe , ‐J. G. , Pluim , H. J. and Oosting , J. 1996 . Signs of enhanced neuromotor maturation in children due to perinatal load with background levels of dioxins. Follow-up until age 2 years and 7 months . Chemosphere , 33 : 1317 – 1326 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson , J. L. and Jacobson , S. W. 1996 . Intellectual impairment in children exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls in utero . New England Journal of Medicine , 335 : 783 – 789 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson , J. L. and Jacobson , S. W. 1997 . Teratogen update, polychlorinated biphenyls . Teratology , 55 : 338 – 347 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Jacobson , S. W. , Jacobson , J. L. , Schwartz , P. M. and Fein , G. G. 1983 . “ Intrauterine exposure of human newborns to PCBs ” . In Measures of exposure in PCBs. Human and Environmental Hazards , Edited by: D'Itri , F. M. and Kamre , M. A. 311 – 343 . Woburn, MA : Butterworth Press .
   Google Scholar
• Jacobson , S. W. , Fein , G. G. , Jacobson , J. L. , Schwartz , P. M. and Dowler , J. K. 1985 . The effect of PCB exposure on visual recognition memory . Child Development , 56 : 853 – 860 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jacobson , J. L. , Jacobson , S. W. and Humphrey , H. E. B. 1990 . Effects of in utero exposure to PCBs on cognitive functioning in young children . Journal of Pediatrics , 116 : 38 – 45 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kodama , H. and Ota , H. 1980 . Transfer of PCBs to infants from their mothers . Archives of Environmental Health , 35 : 95 – 100 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Koopman-Esseboom , C. , Huisman , M. , Weisglas-Kuperus , N. , Boersma , E. R. , De Ridder , M. A. J. , Van Der Paauw , C. G. , Tuinstra , L. G. M. Th. and Sauer , P. J. J. 1994a . Dioxin and PCB levels in blood and human milk in relation to living areas in the Netherlands . Chemosphere , 29 : 2327 – 2338 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koopman-Esseboom , C. , Morse , D. C. , Weisglas-Kuperus , N. , Lutkeschipholt , I. J. , Van Der Paauw , C. G. , Tuinstra , L. G. , Brouwer , A. and Sauer , P. J. 1994b . Effects of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls on thyroid hormone status of pregnant women and their infants . Pediatric Research , 36 : 468 – 473 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koopman-Esseboom , C. , Huisman , M. , Weisglas-Kuperus , N. , Van Der Paauw , C. G. , Tuinstra , L. G. M. Th. , Boersma , E. R. and Sauer , P. J. J. 1994c . PCB and dioxin levels in plasma and human milk of 418 Dutch women and their infants. Predictive value of PCB congener levels in maternal plasma for fetal and infants' exposure to PCBs and dioxins . Chemosphere , 28 : 1721 – 1732 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koopman-Esseboom , C. , Weisglas-Kuperus , N. , De Ridder , M. A. J. , Van Der Paauw , C. G. , Tuinstra , L. G. M. Th. and Sauer , P. J. J. 1996 . Effects of polychlorinated biphenyl/dioxin exposure and feeding type on infants' mental and psychomotor development . Pediatrics , 97 : 700 – 706 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koopman-Esseboom , C. , Huisman , M. , Touwen , B. C. , Boersma , E. R. , Brouwer , A. , Sauer , P. J. J. and Weisglas-Kuperus , N. 1997 . Newbon infants diagnosed as neurologically abnormal with relation to PCB and dioxin exposure and their thyroid hormone status . Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology , 39 : 785
   Google Scholar
• Koppe , J. G. , Olie , K. and Van Wijnen , J. 1992 . Placental transfer of dioxins from mother to fetus. II. PCBs, dioxins and furans and Vitamin K metabolism . Developmental Pharmacology and Therapeutics , 18 : 9 – 13 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Masuda , Y. 1996 . “ Causal agents of Yusho ” . In Yusho: A Human Disaster Caused by PCBs and Related Compounds , Edited by: Kuratsune , M. , Yoshimura , H. , Hori , Y. , Okumura , M. and Masuda , Y. 47 – 80 . Japan : Kyushu University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Matsueda , T. , Iida , T. , Hirakawa , H. , Fukamachi , K. , Tokiwa , H. and Nagayama , J. 1993 . Concentrations of PCDDs, PCDFs and co-planar PCBs in breast milk of Yusho patients and normal subjects . Fukuoka Acta Medica , 84 : 263 – 272 .
   Google Scholar
• Middaugh , J. P. and Egeland , G. M. 1997 . Intellectual function of children exposed to PCBs in utero . New England Journal of Medicine , 336 : 660 – 661 .
   Google Scholar
• Moore , K. L. and Persaud , T. V. N. 1993 . The developing human. Clinical Orientated Embryology , 5th edition , Philadelphia, , USA : W. B. Saunders Co .
   Google Scholar
• Nagayama , J. , Iida , T. , Hirakawa , H. , Matsueda , T. , Okamura , K. , Hasegawa , M. , Sat , K. , Ma , H.-Y. , Tanagawa , T. , Igarashi , H. , Fukushige , J. and Watanabe , T. 1997 . Effects of lactational exposure to chlorinated dioxins and related chemicals on thyroid functions in Japanese babies . Organohalogen Compounds , 33 : 446 – 450 .
   Google Scholar
• Needham , L. L. 1993 . Historical perspective on Yu-Cheng Incident . Organohalogen Compounds , 14 : 231 – 233 .
   Google Scholar
• Needham , L. L. , Patterson , G. G. and Houk , V. N. 1991 . “ Levels of TCDD in selected human populations and their relevance to human risk assessment ” . In Biological Basis for Risk Assessment of Dioxins and Related Compounds, Banbury Report 35 , Edited by: Gallo , M. A. , Scheuple , R. J. and van der Heijden , K. A. 229 – 257 . Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press .
   Google Scholar
• Newsome , W. H. , Davies , D. and Doucet , J. 1995 . PCB and organochlorine pesticides in Canadian human milk . Chemosphere , 30 : 2143 – 2153 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paneth , N. 1991 . Human reproduction after eating PCB-contaminated fish . Health and Environmental Digest , 5 : 4 – 6 .
   Google Scholar
• Patandin , S. , Weisglas-Kuperus , N. , de Ridder , M. A. , Koopman-Esseboom , C. , van Staveren , W. A. , van der Paauw , C. G. and Sauer , P. J. 1997 . Plasma polychlorinated biphenyl levels in Dutch preschool children either breast-fed or formula-fed during infancy . American Journal of Public Health , 87 : 1711 – 1714 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pluim , H. J. , Koppe , J. G. , Olie , K. , van den Slikke , J. W. , Slot , P. C. and van Boxtel , C. J. 1994 . Clinical laboratory manifestations of exposure to background levels of dioxins in the perinatal period . Acta Paediatrica , 83 : 583 – 587 .
   Google Scholar
• Rao , C. V. and Banerji , A. S. 1988 . PCBs in human amniotic fluid . Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology , 41 : 798 – 801 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rogan , W. J. , Gladen , B. C. , Hung , K. L. , Koong , S. L. , Shih , L. Y. , Taylor , J. S. , Wu , Y. C. , Yang , D. , Ragan , B. and Hsu , C. C. 1988 . Congenital poisoning by polychlorinated biphenyls and their contaminants . Taiwan Science , 241 : 334 – 336 .
   Google Scholar
• Ryan , J. J. , Gasiewicz , T. A. and Brown , J. R. Jr . 1990 . Human body burdens of PCDFs associated with toxicity based on the Ysuho and Yucheng incidences . Fundamental and Applied Toxicology , 15 : 722 – 731 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rylander , L. , St romberg , U. and Hagmar , L. 1995 . Decreased birthweight among infants born to women with a high dietary intake of fish contaminated with persistent organochlorine compounds . Scandinavia n Journal of Work Environment & Health , 21 : 368 – 375 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schantz , S. 1996 . Developmental neurotoxicity of PCBs in humans. What do we know and where do we go from here? . Neurotoxicology and Teratology , 18 : 217 – 227 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schantz , S. L. , Seo , B. W. , Moshtaghian , J. and Amin , S. 1997 . Developmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls or dioxin, Do changes in thyroid function mediate effects on spatial learning? . American Zoologist , 37 : 399 – 408 .
   Google Scholar
• Schecter , A. , Päpke , O. and Ball , M. 1990 . Evidence for transplacental transfer of dioxins from mother to fetus, chlorinated dioxin and dibenzofuran levels in the livers of stillborn infants . Chemosphere , 21 : 1017 – 1022 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schecter , A. , Startin , J. , Wright , C. , Papke , O. , Ball , M. and Lis , A. 1996a . Concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans in human placental and fetal tissues from the U.S., and in placentas from Yu-Cheng exposed mothers . Chemosphere , 32 : 551 – 557 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schecter , A. , Papke , O. , Lis , A. , Ball , M. , Ryan , J. J. , Olson , J. R. , Li , L. and Kessler , H. 1996b . Decrease in milk and blood dioxin levels over two years in a mother nursing twins, estimates of decreased maternal and increased infant dioxin body burden from nursing . Chemosphere , 32 : 543 – 549 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Swain , W. R. 1991 . Effects of organochlorine chemicals on the reproductive outcome of humans who consumed contaminated Great Lakes fish, an epidemiologic consideration . Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health , 33 : 587 – 639 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van der Ven , K. , van der Ven , H. , Thibold , A. , Bauer , O. , Kaisi , M. , Mbura , J. , Mgaya , H. N. , Weber , N. , Diedrich , K. and Krebs , D. 1992 . Chlorinated hydrocarbon content of fetal and maternal body tissues and fluids in full term pregnant women, a comparison of Germany versus Tanzania . Human Reproduction , 7 : 95 – 100 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Vartiainen , T. , Jaakkola , J. J. K. , Saarikoski , S. and Tuomisto , J. 1998 . Birth weight and sex of children and the correlation to the body burden of PCDDs/PCDFs and PCBs of the mother . Environmental Health Perspectives , 106 : 61 – 66 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weisglas-Kuperus , N. , Sas , T. C. , Koopman-Esseboom , C. , van der Zwan , C. W. , De Ridder , M. A. , Beishuizen , A. , Hooijkaas , H. and Sauer , P. J. 1995 . Immunologic effects of background prenatal and postnatal exposure to dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls in Dutch infants . Pediatric Research , 38 : 404 – 410 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• WHO . 1996 . “ Levels of PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs in human milk ” . In Environmental Health in Europe , Geneva : WHO . No. 3
   Google Scholar
• Yakushiji , T. 1988 . Contamination, clearance, and transfer of PCB from human milk . Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology , 101 : 139 – 164 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar