Mycotoxins in small grains and maize: Old problems, new challenges

References

• Aoki , T and O’Donnell , K . 1999 . Morphological characterization of Gibberella coronicola sp. nov., obtained through mating experiments of Fusarium pseudograminearum . Mycoscience , 40 : 443 – 453 .
   Google Scholar
• Auerbach , H , Oldenburg , E and Weissbach , F . 1998 . Incidence of Penicillium roqueforti and roquefortine C in silages . Journal of the Science Food Agriculture , 76 : 565 – 572 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Azziz-Baumgartner , E , Lindblade , K , Gieseker , K , Rogers , HS , Kieszak , S , Njapau , H , Schleicher , R , McCoy , LF , Misore , A DeCock , K . 2006 . Case-control study of an acute aflatoxicosis outbreak, Kenya, 2004 . Environmental Health Perspectives , 113 : 1779 – 1783 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bakan , B , Melcion , D , Richard-Molard , D and Cahagnier , B . 2002 . Fungal growth and Fusarium mycotoxin content in isogenic traditional maize and genetically modified maize grown in France and Spain . Journal of Agriculture Food Chemistry , 50 : 728 – 731 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Beardall , JA and Miller , JD . 1994 . “ Human disease in which mycotoxins have been suggested as among the causal factors ” . In Mycotoxins in grain: compounds other than aflatoxin , Edited by: Miller , JD and Trenholm , HL . 487 – 540 . St. Paul, MN : Egan Press . Mycotoxins in grain: compounds other than aflatoxin.
   Google Scholar
• Bhat , RV , Beedu , SR , Ramakrishna , Y and Munshi , KL . 1989 . Outbreak of trichothecene mycotoxicosis associated with consumption of mould-damaged wheat in Kashmir Valley, India . Lancet , 7 : 35 – 37 .
   Google Scholar
• Bhavanishanka , TN , Ramesh , HP and Shantha , T . 1988 . Dermal toxicity of Fusarium toxins in combinations . Archives Toxicology , 61 : 241 – 244 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bolger , M , Coker , RD , DiNovi , M , Gaylor , D , Gelderblom , W , Olsen , M , Paster , N , Riley , RT , Shephard , G and Speijers , GJA . 2001 . Fumonisins. WHO/IPCS safety evaluation of certain mycotoxins in food . WHO Food Additives Series , 47 : 557 – 680 .
   Google Scholar
• Bondy , GS and Pestka , JJ . 2000 . Immunomodulation by fungal toxins . Journal of Toxicology Environmental Health B Critical Reviews , 3 : 109 – 143 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bukowski , R , Vaughn , C , Bottomley , R and Chen , T . 1982 . Southwest Oncology Group phase II study of anguidine in 134 patients with gastrointestinal malignancies . Cancer Treatment Reports , 66 : 381 – 383 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Canady , RA , Coker , RD , Egan , SK , Krska , R , Kuiper-Goodman , T , Olsen , M , Pestka , J , Resnik , S and Schlatter , J . 2001 . Deoxynivalenol. WHO/IPCS safety evaluation of certain. mycotoxins in food . WHO Food Additives Series , 47 : 419 – 555 .
   Google Scholar
• Carranza , MR , Moschini , RC , Kraan , G and Bariffi , JH . 2007 . Examination of meteorology-based predictions of Fusarium head blight of wheat grown at two locations in the southern Pampas region of Argentina . Australasian Plant Pathology , 36 : 305 – 306 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chen , LF , Bai , G-H and Desjardins , AE . 2001 . Recent advances in wheat head scab research in China . Available: http://www.nal.usda.gov/pgdic/WHS/whsindex.html. Accessed 25 July 2007
   Google Scholar
• Clear , RM , Patrick , SK , Gaba , D , Roscoe , M , Turkington , TK , Demeke , T , Pouleur , S , Couture , L , Ward , TJ and O’Donnell , K . 2006 . Trichothecene and zearalenone production in culture by isolates of Fusarium pseudograminearum from western Canada . Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology , 28 : 131 – 136 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cossette , F and Miller , JD . 1995 . Phytotoxic effect of deoxynivalenol and Gibberella ear rot resistance of corn . Natural Toxins , 3 : 383 – 388 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Cundliffe , E , Cannon , M and Davies , J . 1974 . Mechanism of inhibition of eukaryotic protein synthesis by trichothecene fungal toxins . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 71 : 30 – 34 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dawo , MI , Wilkinson , JM , Sanders , FET and Pilbeam , DJ . 2007 . The yield and quality of fresh and ensiled plant material from intercropped maize (Zea mays) and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) . Journal Science of the Food and Agriculture , 87 : 1391 – 1399 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Day , NE . 1975 . Some aspects of the epidemiology of esophageal cancer . Cancer Research , 35 : 3304 – 3307 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De La Campa , R , Miller , JD and Hendricks , K . 2004 . Fumonisin in tortillas produced under small-scale facilities and the effect of traditional variations on masa production on this toxin . Journal of Agriculture Food Chemistry , 52 : 4432 – 4437 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• De La Campa , R , Hooker , DC , Miller , JD , Schaafsma , WA and Hammond , BG . 2005 . Modelling effects of environment, insect damage and BT genotypes on fumonisin accumulation in maize in Argentina and the Philippines . Mycopathologia , 159 : 539 – 552 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Del Ponte , EM , Fernandes , JMC and Willingthon , P . 2005 . A risk infection simulation model for Fusarium head blight of wheat . Fitopatologia Brasileira , 30 : 634 – 642 .
   Google Scholar
• DeSimone , PA , Greco , FA and Lessner , HF . 1979 . Phase I evaluation of a weekly schedule of anguidine. Phase I evaluation of a weekly schedule of anguidine . Cancer Treatment Reports , 63 : 2015 – 2017 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Desjardins , AE , Manandhar , G , Plattner , RD , Maragos , CM , Shrestha , M and McCormick , SP . 2000 . Occurrence of Fusarium species and mycotoxins in Nepalese maize and wheat and the effect of traditional processing methods on mycotoxin levels . Journal of Agriculture Food Chemistry , 48 : 1377 – 1383 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Desjardins , AE and McCarthy , SA . 2004 . Milho, makka, and yu mai: early journeys of Zea mays to Asia , Available: http://www.nal.usda.gov/research/maize. Accessed 25 July 2007
   Google Scholar
• De Wolf , ED . 2003 . Risk assessment models for Fusarium head blight epidemics based on within-season weather data . Phytopathology , 93 : 428 – 435 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Doko , MB , Canet , C , Brown , N , Sydenham , EW , Mpuchane , S and Siame , BA . 1996 . Natural Co-occurrence of fumonisins and zearalenone in cereals and cereal-based foods from Eastern and Southern Africa . Journal of Agriculture Food Chemistry , 44 : 3240 – 3243 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dyson , T . 2001 . World food trends: a neo-malthusian prospect? . Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society , 145 : 438 – 455 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekström , M , Fowler , HJ , Kilsby , CG and Jones , PD . 2005 . New estimates of future changes in extreme rainfall across the UK using regional climate model integrations. 2. Future estimates and use in impact studies . Journal of Hydrology , 300 : 234 – 251 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fandohan , P , Zoumenou , D , Hounhouigan , DJ , Marasas , WFO , Wingfield , MJ and Hell , K . 2005 . Fate of aflatoxins and fumonisins during the processing of maize into food products in Benin . International Journal of Food Microbiology , 98 : 249 – 259 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fisher , EE , Kellock , AM and Wellington , NAM . 1967 . Toxic strain of Fusarium culmorum (WG Smith) Sacc. isolated from Zea mays L. associated with sickness in dairy cattle . Nature , 315 : 322
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gareis , M , Zimmermann , C , Schothorst , R , Paulsch , W , Vidnes , A , Bergsten , C , Paulsen , B , Brera , C , Miraglia , M , Grossi , S and Debegnach , F . 2001 . Collection of occurrence data of Fusarium toxins in food and assessment of dietary intake by the population of EU member states . Available: http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/scoop/task3210.pdf. Accessed 25 July 2007
   Google Scholar
• Gelineau-van Waes , J , Starr , L , Maddox , J , Aleman , F , Voss , KA , Wilberding , J and Riley , RT . 2005 . Maternal fumonisin exposure and risk for neural tube defects: mechanisms in an in vivo mouse model. Birth defects . Res Clin Mol Teratol , 73 : 487 – 497 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goswami , RS and Kistler , HC . 2004 . Pathogen profile heading for disaster: Fusarium graminearum . Molecular Plant Pathology , 5 : 515 – 525 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gyonggyossy-Issa , MIC , Card , RT , Fergusson , DJ and Khachatourians , GC . 1986 . Prehaemolytic erythrocyte deformability changes caused by trichothecene T-2 toxin . Blood Cells , 11 : 393 – 403 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hammond , BG , Campbell , K , Pilcher , C , DeGooyer , T , Robinson , A , McMillen , B , Spangler , S , Riordan , S , Rice , L and Richard , J . 2004 . Lower fumonisin mycotoxin levels in the grain of Bt corn grown in the United States in 2000–2002 . Journal of Agriculture Food Chemistry , 52 : 1390 – 1397 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hooker , DC , Schaafsma , AW and Tamburic-Ilincic , L . 2002 . Using weather variables pre- and postheading to predict deoxynivalenol in winter wheat . Plant Disease , 86 : 611 – 619 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hooker , DC and Schaafsma , AW . 2005 . Agronomic and environmental impacts concentrations of deoxynivalenol and fumonisin B1 in corn across Ontario . Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology , 27 : 347 – 356 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hoyman , WG . 1941 . Concentration and characterization of the emetic principle present in barley infected with Gibberella saubenetii . Phytopathology , 31 : 871 – 885 .
   Google Scholar
• IARC . 1993 . “ Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans ” . In Some naturally occurring substances: food items and constituents, heterocyclic aromatic amines and mycotoxins , Vol. 56 , Lyon : World Health Organisation/IARC Press .
   Google Scholar
• IARC . 2003 . “ Monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans ” . In Some traditional herbal medicines, some Mycotoxins, naphthalene and Styrene , Vol. 82 , Lyon : World Health Organisation/IARC Press .
   Google Scholar
• IPCS . 2000 . “ Fumonisin B1 ” . In Environmental health criteria , Vol. 219 , 43 – 50 . Geneva : International Programme on Chemical Safety, WHO .
   Google Scholar
• Jennings , P , Coate , ME , Walsh , K , Turner , JA and Nicholson , P . 2004 . Determination of deoxynivalenol- and nivalenol-producing chemotypes of Fusarium graminearum isolated from wheat crops in England and Wales . Plant Pathology , 53 : 643 – 652 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Joffe , AZ and Yagen , B . 1977 . Comparative study of the yield of T-2 toxic produced by Fusarium poae, F. sporotrichioides and F. sporotrichioides var. tricinctum strains from different sources . Mycopathologia , 60 : 93 – 97 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Khachatourians , GC . 1990 . Metabolic effects of the trichothecene T-2 toxin . Canadian Journal of Physiology Pharmacology , 68 : 1004 – 1008 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koch , H-J , Pringas , C and Maerlaender , B . 2006 . Evaluation of environmental and management effects on Fusarium head blight infection and deoxynivalenol concentration in the grain of winter wheat . European Journal of Agronomy , 24 : 357 – 366 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koshinsky , HA and Khachatourians , GC . 1992 . Trichothecene synergism, additivity and antagonism: the significance of the maximally quiescent ratio . Natural Toxins , 1 : 48 – 47 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kuiper-Goodman , T . 1985 . Potential human health hazards and regulatory aspects , Edited by: Scott , PM , Trenholm , HL and Sutton , MD . 103 – 110 . Ottawa : NRCC. ISSN 0316-0114. . Mycotoxins: a Canadian perspective. NRCC Publication 22848.
   Google Scholar
• Kuiper-Goodman , T . 1994 . “ Prevention of human mycotoxicosis through risk assessment and risk management ” . In Mycotoxins in grain , Edited by: Miller , JD and Trenholm , HL . 439 – 470 . St. Paul, MN : Eagan Press . Mycotoxins in grain.
   Google Scholar
• Kuiper-Goodman , T , Hilts , C , Hayward , S , Richard , I and Billiard , S . 2008 . Probabilistic exposure assessment and risk analysis of ochratoxin and deoxynivalenol for all age groups and impact of MLs . In preparation
   Google Scholar
• Larsen , JC , Hunt , J , Perrin , I and Ruckenbauer , P . 2004 . Workshop on trichothecenes with a focus on DON: summary report . Toxicology Letters , 153 : 1 – 22 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Laurent , DN , Platzer , N , Kohler , F , Sauvant , MP and Pellegrin , F . 1989 . Macrofusin and micromonilin: two new mycotoxins isolated from corn infected by Fusarium moniliforme . Microbiologie Aliment Nutrition , 7 : 9 – 16 .
   Google Scholar
• Lehner , B , Döll , P , Alcamo , J , Henrichs , T and Kaspar , F . 2006 . Estimating the impact of global change on flood and drought risks in Europe: a continental integrated analysis . Climatic Change , 75 : 273 – 299 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lew , H , Adler , A and Edinger , W . 1991 . Moniliformin and the European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) . Mycotoxin Research , 7 : 71 – 76 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Li , F , Luo , X and Yoshizawa , T . 1999 . Mycotoxins (trichothecenes, zearalenone and fumonisins) in cereals associated with human redmold intoxications stored since 1989 and 1991 in China . Natural Toxins , 7 : 93 – 97 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Mansfield , MA , De Wolf , ED and Kuldau , GA . 2005 . Relationships between weather conditions, agronomic practices, and fermentation characteristics with deoxynivalenol content in fresh and ensiled maize . Plant Disease , 89 : 1151 – 115 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marasas , WFO . 2001 . Discovery and occurrence of the fumonisins: a historical perspective . Environ Health Perspectives , 109 S2 : 239 – 43 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Marasas , WFO , Riley , RT , Hendricks , KA , Stevens , VL , Sadler , TW , Gelineau-van Waes , J , Missmer , SA , Cabrera , J , Torres , O Gelderblom , WCA . 2004 . Fumonisins disrupt sphingolipid metabolism, folate transport, and neural tube development in embryo culture and in vivo: a potential risk factor for human neural tube defects among populations consuming fumonisin-contaminated maize . Journal of Nutrition , 134 : 711 – 716 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Matossian , MK . 1989 . Poisons of the past: molds, epidemics, and history , Yale University Press .
   Google Scholar
• McCann , JC . 2005 . Maize and grace: Africa's encounter with a new world crop, 1500–2000 , Harvard University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Meky , FA , Turner , PC , Ashcroft , AE , Miller , JD , Qiao , Y-L , Roth , MJ and Wild , CP . 2003 . Development of a urinary biomarker of human exposure to deoxynivalenol . Food Chemical Toxicology , 41 : 265 – 273 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mesterhazy , A . 2003 . “ Breeding wheat for Fusarium head blight resistance in Europe ” . In Fusarium head blight of wheat and barley , Edited by: Leonard , KJ and Busch , RH . 211 – 240 . St. Paul, MN : American Phytopathological Society . Fusarium head blight of wheat and barley.
   Google Scholar
• Miller , JD . 1994 . “ Epidemiology of Fusarium graminearum diseases of wheat and corn ” . In Mycotoxins in grain: compounds other than aflatoxin , Edited by: Miller , JD and Trenholm , HL . 19 – 36 . St. Paul, MN : Egan Press . Mycotoxins in grain: compounds other than aflatoxin.
   Google Scholar
• Miller , JD . 1995 . Fungi and mycotoxins in grain: implications for stored product research . Journal of Stored Product Research , 31 : 1 – 6 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , JD . 2001 . Factors that affect the occurrence of fumonisin . Environmental Health Perspectives , 109 S2 : 321 – 324 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , JD and Ewen , MA . 1997 . Toxic effects of deoxynivalenol on ribosomes and tissues of the spring wheat cultivars Frontana and Casavant . Natural Toxins , 5 : 234 – 237 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Miller , JD , Culley , J , Fraser , K , Hubbard , S , Meloche , F , Ouellet , T , Seaman , L , Seifert , KA , Turkington , K and Voldeng , H . 1998 . Effect of tillage practice on Fusarium head blight of wheat . Canadian Journal of Plant Pathology , 20 : 95 – 103 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , JD , Greenhalgh , R , Wang , YZ and Lu , M . 1991 . Mycotoxin chemotypes of three Fusarium species . Mycologia , 83 : 121 – 130 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , JD , Savard , ME , Schaafsma , AW , Seifert , KA and Reid , LA . 1995 . Mycotoxin production by Fusarium moniliforme and Fusarium proliferatum from Ontario and occurrence of fumonisin in the 1993 corn crop . Canadian Journal of Plant Pathologyogy , 17 : 233 – 239 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miller , JD , Young , JC and Sampson , DR . 1984 . Deoxynivalenol and Fusarium head blight resistance in spring cereals . Phytopathol Zeitschrift , 113 : 359 – 367 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mirocha , CJ . 1984 . “ Mycotoxicoses associated with Fusarium ” . In The applied mycology of Fusarium , Edited by: Moss , MO and Smith , JE . 141 – 155 . Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press . The applied mycology of fusarium.
   Google Scholar
• Missmer , SA , Suarez , L , Felkner , M , Wang , E , Merrill , Jr AH , Rothman , KJ and Hendricks , KA . 2006 . Exposure to fumonisins and the occurrence of neural tube defects along the Texas-Mexico border . Environmental Health Perspectives , 114 : 237 – 241 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Morooka , N , Uratsuji , N , Yoshizawa , T and Yamamoto , H . 1972 . Studies on the toxic substances in barley infected with Fusarium species . Journal of Food Hygiene Society Japan , 13 : 368 – 375 .
   Google Scholar
• Mundkur , BB . 1934 . Some preliminary feeding experiments with scabby barley . Phytopathology , 24 : 1237 – 1243 .
   Google Scholar
• Myer , R . 1978 . Wheat in China: past, present and future . The China Quarterly , 74 : 297 – 333 .
   Google Scholar
• Ngoko , Z , Marasas , WFO , Rheeder , JP , Shephard , GS , Wingfield , MJ and Cardwell , KF . 2001 . Fungal infection and mycotoxin contamination of maize in the humid forest and the Western Highlands of Cameroon . Phytoparasitica , 29 : 352 – 360 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nielsen , KF , Sumarah , MW , Frisvad , JC and Miller , JD . 2006 . Production of metabolites by species in the Penicillium roqueforti complex . Journal of Agriculture Food Chemistry , 54 : 3756 – 3763 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nikiema , PN , Worrillow , L , Traore , AS , Wild , CP and Turner , PC . 2004 . Fumonisin contamination of maize in Burkina Faso, West Africa . Food Additives and Contaminants , 21 : 865 – 870 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• NTP . 2001 . “ TR-496 Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Fumonisin B1 (CAS No. 116355-83-0) in F344/N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Feed Studies) ” . Triangle Park, NC : US National Toxicology Program: Research .
   Google Scholar
• O’Brien , M , Nielsen , KF , O’Kiely , P , Forristal , PD , Fuller , HT and Frisvad , JC . 2006 . Mycotoxins and other secondary metabolites produced in vitro by Penicillium paneum Frisvad and Penicillium roqueforti Thom isolated from baled grass silage in Ireland . Journal of Agriculture Food Chemistry , 54 : 9268 – 9276 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Brien , M , O’Kiely , P , Forristal , PD and Fuller , HT . 2007 . Quantification and identification of fungal propagules in well-managed baled grass silage and in normal on-farm produced bales . Animal Feed Science and Technology , 132 : 283 – 297 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• O’Donnell , K , Kistler , HK , Tacke , HK and Casper , HK . 2000 . Gene genealogies reveal global phylogeographic structure and reproductive isolation among lineages of Fusarium graminearum, the fungus causing wheat scab . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 97 : 7905 – 7910 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ohmomo , S , Kitamoto , HK and Nakajima , T . 1994 . Detection of roquefortines in Penicillium roqueforti isolated from molded maize silage . Journal Science of the Food and Agriculture , 64 : 211 – 215 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Paul , PA , Lipps , PE and Madden , LV . 2006 . Meta-analysis of regression coefficients for the relationship between fusarium head blight and deoxynivalenol content of wheat . Phytopathology , 96 : 951 – 961 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pestka , JJ , Lin , WS and Miller , ER . 1987 . Emetic activity of the trichothecene 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol in swine . Food and Chemical Toxicology , 25 : 855 – 858 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pestka , JJ and Smolinski , AT . 2005 . Deoxynivalenol: toxicology and potential effects on humans . Journal of Toxicology Environmental Health B Critical Reviews , 8 : 39 – 69 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pieters , MN , Bakker , M and Slob , W . 2004 . Reduced intake of deoxynivalenol in The Netherlands: a risk assessment update . Toxicology Letters , 153 : 145 – 153 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pitt , JI . 1991 . Penicillium toxins . ACIAR Proc , 36 : 99 – 103 .
   Google Scholar
• Prelusky , DB . 1993 . The effect of low-level deoyxnivalenol on neurotransmitter levels measured in pig cerebral spinal fluid . Journal of Environmental Science Health B , 26 : 731 – 761 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prelusky , DB . 1997 . Effect of intraperitoneal infusion of deoxynivalenol on feed consumption and weight gain in the pig . Natural Toxins , 5 : 121 – 125 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Prelusky , DB , Yeung , JM , Thompson , BK and Trenholm , HL . 1992 . Effect of deoxynivalenol on neurotransmitters in discrete regions of swine brain . Archives Environmental Contamination Toxicology , 22 : 36 – 40 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Prentice , N and Dickson , AD . 1968 . Emetic material associated with Fusarium species in cereal grains and artificial media . Biotechnology and Bioengineering , 10 : 413 – 427 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rasmussen , PH , Petersen , A and Ghorbani , F . 2007 . Annual variation of deoxynivalenol in Danish wheat flour 1998–2003 and estimated daily intake by the Danish population . Food Additives and Contaminants , 24 : 315 – 325 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Riley , RT and Miller , JD . 2003 . Case study: risk analysis of fumonisin.Food safety risk analysis: a manual. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization, International Life Sciences Institute, Industry Council For Development. Available from FAO on CD ROM or www.fsc.go.jp/sonota/foodsafety_riskanalysis.pdf. Accessed 25 July 2007
   Google Scholar
• Reid , LM , Nicol , RW , Ouellet , T , Savard , M , Miller , JD , Young , JC , Stewart , DW and Schaafsma , DW . 1999 . Interaction of Fusarium graminearum and F. moniliforme in maize ears: disease progress, fungal biomass and mycotoxin accumulation . Phytopathology , 89 : 1028 – 1037 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rose , EF . 1973 . Esophageal cancer in the Transkei: 1955–1969 . Journal National Cancer Institute , 51 : 7 – 16 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sadler , TW , Merrill , AH , Stevens , VL , Sullards , MC , Wang , E and Wang , P . 2002 . Prevention of fumonisin B1-induced neural tube defects by folic acid . Teratology , 66 : 169 – 176 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• SCF . 2003 . Scientific Committee on Food. Updated opinion on fumonisin B1, B2 and B3 . Available: http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/out185en.pdf. Accessed 25 July 2007
   Google Scholar
• Seglar , W . 1999 . “ Case studies that implicate silage mycotoxins as the cause of dairy herd problems ” . In Silage: field to feedbunk , Vol. 99 , 242 – 254 . Ithaca, NY : Natural Resource Agriculture and Engineering Service .
   Google Scholar
• Seglar , W , Blake , C , Cinch , D , Chu , FS , Gotlieb , AR , Hinds , M , Thomas , C , Thomas , E , Tomes , N , Trenholm , L and Undersander , D . 1997 . Comparison of mycotoxins levels among problem and healthy dairy herds . Available from Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc. DeMoines, Iowa
   Google Scholar
• Schaafsma , AW and Hooker , DC . 2008 . Climatic models to predict occurrence of Fusarium toxins in wheat and maize . International Journal of Food Microbiology , (in press)
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schaafsma , AW , Hooker , DC , Pineiro , M , Díaz de Ackermann , M , Pereyra , S and Castaño , JP . 2006 . “ Pre-Harvest Forecasting of deoxynivalenol for regulatory action in wheat grain in Uruguay using readily available weather inputs ” . In Mycotoxins and phycotoxins: advances in determination, toxicology and exposure management, Mycotoxins and phycotoxins: advances in determination, toxicology and exposure management. , Edited by: Njapau , H . 227 – 238 . Wageningen, , The Netherlands : Wageningen Academic Publishers .
   Google Scholar
• Schiefer , HB , Hancock , DS and Bhatti , AR . 1986 . Systemic effects of topically applied trichothecenes. I. Comparative study of various trichothecenes in mice . Journal of Veterinary Medicine A , 33 : 373 – 383 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schroeder , HW and Christensen , JJ . 1963 . Factors affecting resistance of wheat to scab caused by Gibberella zeae . Phytopathology , 53 : 831 – 838 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scott , PM . 1989 . “ The natural occurrence of trichothecenes ” . In Trichothecene toxicosis: pathophysiological effects , Edited by: Beasley , VR . Vol. 1. , 2 – 26 . Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press . Trichothecene toxicosis: pathophysiological effects.
   Google Scholar
• Shelby , RA , White , DG and Burke , EM . 1994 . Differential fumonisin production in maize hybrids . Plant Disease , 78 : 582 – 584 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shephard , GS , Leggott , NL , Stockenstrom , S , Somdyala , NIM and Marasas , WFO . 2002 . Preparation of South African maize porridge: effect on fumonisin mycotoxin levels . South African Journal Science , 98 : 393 – 396 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shephard , GS , Marasas , WF , Burger , HM , Somdyala , NI , Rheeder , JP , Van der Westhuizen , L , Gatyeni , P and Van Schalkwyk , DJ . 2007 . Exposure assessment for fumonisins in the former Transkei region of South Africa . Food Additives and Contaminants , 24 : 621 – 629 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shephard , GS , van der Westhuizen , L , Gatyeni , PM , Somdyala , NI , Burger , HM and Marasas , WFO . 2005 . Fumonisin mycotoxins in traditional Xhosa maize beer in South Africa . Journal of Agriculture Food Chemistry , 30 : 9634 – 9637 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snijders , CHA . 1994 . “ Breeding for Fusarium resistance in wheat and maize ” . In Mycotoxins in grain , Edited by: Miller , JD and Trenholm , HL . 37 – 58 . St. Paul, MN : Eagan Press . Mycotoxins in grain.
   Google Scholar
• Snijders , CHA . 2004 . Resistance in wheat to Fusarium infection and trichothecene formation . Toxicology Letters , 153 : 37 – 46 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Snijders , CHA and Krechting , CF . 1992 . Inhibition of deoxynivalenol translocation and fungal colonization in Fusarium head blight resistant wheat . Canadian Journal of Botany , 70 : 1570 – 1576 .
   Google Scholar
• Snijders , CHA and Perkowski , J . 1990 . Effects of head blight caused by Fusarium culmorum on toxin production and weight of wheat kernels . Phytopathology , 80 : 566 – 570 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sumarah , MW , Miller , JD and Blackwell , BA . 2005 . Isolation and metabolite production by Penicillium roqueforti, P. paneum and P. crustosum isolated in Canada . Mycopathologia , 159 : 571 – 577 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thrane , U , Adler , A , Clasen , P-E , Galvano , F , Langseth , W , Lew , H , Logrieco , A , Nielsen , KF and Ritieni , A . 2004 . Diversity in metabolite production by Fusarium langsethiae, Fusarium poae, and Fusarium sporotrichioides . International Journal of Food Microbiology , 95 : 257 – 266 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tong , C , Hall , CHS and Wang , H . 2003 . Land use change in rice, wheat and maize production in China (1961–1998) . Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment , 95 : 523 – 536 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Torp , M and Nirenberg , HI . 2004 . Fusarium langsethiae sp. nov. on cereals in Europe . International Journal of Food Microbiology , 95 : 247 – 256 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Toth , B , Mesterházy , A , Nicholson , P , Téren , P and Varga , J . 2004 . Mycotoxin production and molecular variability of European and American isolates of Fusarium culmorum . European Journal of Plant Pathology , 110 : 587 – 599 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tüller , G , Armbruster , G , Wiedenmann , S , Hänichen , T , Schams , D and Bauer , J . 1998 . Occurrence of roquefortine in silage - toxicological relevance to sheep . Journal of Animal Physiolology Animal Nutrition , 80 : 246 – 249 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner , PC , Burley , VJ , Rothwell , JA , White , KLM , Cade , JE and Wild , CP . 2007 . Dietary wheat reduction decreases the level of urinary deoxynivalenol in UK adults . Journal of Exposure Analytical Environmental Epidemiolology , (in press)
   Google Scholar
• Ueno , Y . 1983 . “ Trichothecenes: chemical, biological and toxicological aspects ” . In Developments in Food Science , Vol. 4 , Amsterdam : Elsevier .
   Google Scholar
• Udegawa , S . 1988 . Mycotoxicoses–the present problem and prevention of mycotoxins . Asian Medical Journal , 31 : 599 – 604 .
   Google Scholar
• Vesonder , RF and Hesseltine , CW . 1981 . Vomitoxin: natural occurrence on cereal grains and significance as a refusal and emetic factor to swine . Process Biochemistry , 16 : 12,14/15, 44
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Vesonder , RF , Ciegler , A and Jensen , AH . 1973 . Isolation of the emetic principle from Fusarium-infected corn . Applied Microbiology , 26 : 1008 – 1010 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Voss , KA , Chamberlain , WJ , Bacon , CW , Herbert , RA , Walters , DB and Norred , WP . 1995 . Subchronic feeding study of the mycotoxin fumonisin B1 in B6C3F1 mice and Fischer 344 rats . Fundamental Applied Toxicology , 24 : 102 – 110 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wang , YZ and Miller , JD . 1988 . “ Screening techniques and sources of resistance to Fusarium head blight ” . In Wheat production constraints in tropical environments , Edited by: Klatt , AY . 239 – 250 . Wheat production constraints in tropical environments. Mexico City : CIMMYT .
   Google Scholar
• Wei , RD , Still , PE , Smalley , EB , Schnoes , HK and Strong , FM . 1973 . Isolation and partial characterization of a mycotoxin from Penicillium roqueforti . Applied Microbiology , 25 : 111 – 114 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilde , F , Korzun , V , Ebmeyer , E , Geiger , WW and Miedaner , T . 2004 . Comparison of phenotypic and marker-based selection for Fusarium head blight resistance and DON content in spring wheat . Molecular Breeding , 19 : 357 – 370 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilkinson , JM and Toivonen , MI . 2003 . World Silage , Lincoln, , UK : Chalcombe Publications .
   Google Scholar
• Wilson , M . 2007 . “ Increased frequency and intensity of floods ” . In Catastrophic rapid climate change, 360 Risk Project , 16 – 21 . London : Lloyd's .
   Google Scholar
• Wu , F . 2004 . Mycotoxin risk assessment for the purpose of setting international regulatory standards . Environmental Science and Technology , 38 : 4049 – 4055 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Xu , XM , Parry , DW , Nicholson , P , Thomsett , MA , Simpson , D , Edwards , SG , Cooke , BM , Doohan , FM , Brennan , JM Moretti , A . 2005 . Predominance and association of pathogenic fungi causing Fusarium ear blight in wheat in four European countries . European Journal of Plant Pathology , 112 : 143 – 154 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Yoshizawa , T . 1983 . Red-mold diseases and natural occurrence in Japan . In: Ueno Y, editor. Trichothecenes–chemical, biological and toxicological effects. Developments in Food Science. , 44 : 195 – 2009 .
   Google Scholar
• Zhang , X , Zwiers , FW , Hegerl , GC , Lambert , FH , Gillett , NP , Solomon , S , Stott , PA and Nozawa , T . 2007 . Detection of human influence on twentieth-century precipitation trends . Nature doi:10.1038/nature06025
   Google Scholar