Treatment Effectiveness and the Russo–Williamson Thesis, EBM+, and Bradford Hill's Viewpoints

References

• American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. 2013. Treatment of Osteoarthritis of the Knee. 2nd ed. Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guideline. https://www.aaos.org/globalassets/quality-and-practiceresources/osteoarthritis-of-the-knee/osteoarthritis-of-the-knee-2nd-edition-clinical-practice-guideline.pdf. Published May 18, 2013.
   Google Scholar
• Armon, C. 2018. “From Snow to Hill to ALS: An Epidemiological Odyssey in Search of ALS Causation.” Journal of the Neurological Sciences 391: 134–140. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2018.05.016.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Aronson, J. K., A. La Caze, M. P. Kelly, V.-P. Parkkinen, and J. Williamson. 2018. “The Use of Mechanistic Evidence in Drug Approval.” Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 24 (5): 1166–1176. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/jep.12960.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ashcroft, R. 2002. “What is Clinical Effectiveness?” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 33 (2): 219–233. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0039-3681(02)00020-1.
   Google Scholar
• Bailey, C. J., J. L. Gross, A. Pieters, A. Bastien, and J. F. List. 2010. “Effect of Dapagliflozin in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Who Have Inadequate Glycaemic Control With Metformin: A Randomised, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial.” The Lancet 375 (9733): 2223–2233. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60407-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Black, N. 1996. “Why We Need Observational Studies to Evaluate the Effectiveness of Health Care.” BMJ: British Medical Journal 312 (7040): 1215–1218.
   Google Scholar
• Bluhm, R. 2017a. “The Hierarchy of Evidence, Meta-Analysis, and Systematic Review.” In The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Medicine, edited by M. Solomon, J. R. Simon, and H. Kincaid. Routledge. doi:https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315720739
   Google Scholar
• Bluhm, R. 2017b. “Inductive Risk and the Role of Values in Clinical Trials.” In Exploring Inductive Risk: Case Studies of Values in Science, edited by K. C. Elliott and T. Richards. Oxford University Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190467715.003.0010
   Google Scholar
• Broadbent, A. 2011. “Inferring Causation in Epidemiology: Mechanisms, Black Boxes, and Contrasts.” In Causality in the Sciences, edited by P. M. Illari, F. Russo, and J. Williamson. Oxford University Press. https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199574131.001.0001/acprof-9780199574131-chapter-3
   Google Scholar
• Cartwright, N., and J. Stegenga. 2011. “A Theory of Evidence for Evidence-Based Policy.” In Evidence, Inference and Enquiry, edited by P. Dawid, W. Twining, and M. Vasilaki, Vol. 71, 291–322. Oxford University Press. http://ukcatalogue.oup.com/product/9780197264843.do
   Google Scholar
• Chen, S., S. Wang, P. Rong, J. Wang, L. Qiao, X. Feng, J. Liu, and J. Zhang. 2014. “Acupuncture for Visceral Pain: Neural Substrates and Potential Mechanisms.” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 609594. doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/609594.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke, B., D. Gillies, P. Illari, F. Russo, and J. Williamson. 2013. “The Evidence That Evidence-Based Medicine Omits.” Preventive Medicine 57 (6): 745–747. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2012.10.020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Clarke, B., D. Gillies, P. Illari, F. Russo, and J. Williamson. 2014. “Mechanisms and the Evidence Hierarchy.” Topoi 33 (2): 339–360. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11245-013-9220-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Claveau, F. 2012. “The Russo–Williamson Theses in the Social Sciences: Causal Inference Drawing on Two Types of Evidence.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 43 (4): 806–813. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2012.05.004.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Colquhoun, D., and S. P. Novella. 2013. “Acupuncture Is Theatrical Placebo.” Anesthesia & Analgesia 116 (6): 1360–1363. doi:https://doi.org/10.1213/ANE.0b013e31828f2d5e.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Crawford, M. J., H. Killaspy, T. R. Barnes, B. Barrett, S. Byford, K. Clayton, J. Dinsmore, et al. 2012. “Group Art Therapy as an Adjunctive Treatment for People With Schizophrenia: A Randomised Controlled Trial (MATISSE).” Health Technology Assessment (Winchester, England) 16 (8, iii–iv): 1–76. doi:https://doi.org/10.3310/hta16080.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Czamanski-Cohen, J., and K. L. Weihs. 2016. “The Bodymind Model: A Platform for Studying the Mechanisms of Change Induced by Art Therapy.” The Arts in Psychotherapy 51: 63–71. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aip.2016.08.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Damman, O. C., N. M. M. Bogaerts, M. J. van den Haak, and D. R. M. Timmermans. 2017. “How Lay People Understand and Make Sense of Personalized Disease Risk Information.” Health Expectations 20 (5): 973–983. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.12538.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dammann, O. 2018. “Hill’s Heuristics and Explanatory Coherentism in Epidemiology.” American Journal of Epidemiology 187 (1): 1–6. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwx216.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dankers, M., M. H. J. M. G. Nelissen-Vrancken, B. H. Hart, A. C. Lambooij, L. van Dijk, and A. K. Mantel-Teeuwisse. 2021. “Alignment Between Outcomes and Minimal Clinically Important Differences in the Dutch Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Guideline and Healthcare Professionals’ Preferences.” Pharmacology Research & Perspectives 9 (3): e00750. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/prp2.750.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dincer, F., and K. Linde. 2003. “Sham Interventions in Randomized Clinical Trials of Acupuncture – a Review.” Complementary Therapies in Medicine 11 (4): 235–242. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/s0965-2299(03)00124-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Douglas, H. 2000. “Inductive Risk and Values in Science.” Philosophy of Science 67 (4): 559–579. http://www.jstor.org/stable/188707.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Douglas, H. 2009. Science, Policy, and the Value-Free Ideal. University of Pittsburgh Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt6wrc78
   Google Scholar
• Dragulinescu, S. 2012. “On ‘Stabilising’ Medical Mechanisms, Truth-Makers and Epistemic Causality: A Critique to Williamson and Russo’s Approach.” Synthese 187 (2): 785–800. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-011-0011-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dragulinescu, S. 2017. “Mechanisms and Difference-Making.” Acta Analytica 32 (1): 29–54. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s12136-016-0292-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duan, N., R. L. Kravitz, and C. H. Schmid. 2013. “Single-Patient (N-of-1) Trials: A Pragmatic Clinical Decision Methodology for Patient-Centered Comparative Effectiveness Research.” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 66 (8 Suppl): S21–S28. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2013.04.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Elliott, K. C., and T. Richards. 2017. “Exploring Inductive Risk.” In Exploring Inductive Risk: Case Studies of Values in Science, edited by K. C. Elliott and T. Richards. Oxford University Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190467715.003.0013
   Google Scholar
• Fiorentino, A. R., and O. Dammann. 2015. “Evidence, Illness, and Causation: An Epidemiological Perspective on the Russo–Williamson Thesis.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 54: 1–9. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2015.09.010.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Franco, P. L. 2017. “Assertion, Nonepistemic Values, and Scientific Practice.” Philosophy of Science 84 (1): 160–180. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/688939.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fuller, J. 2021. “The Myth and Fallacy of Simple Extrapolation in Medicine.” Synthese 198: 2919–2939. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-019-02255-0.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gillies, D. 2019a. Causality, Probability, and Medicine. 1st ed. Routledge. doi:https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315735542
   Google Scholar
• Gillies, D. 2019b. A Reply to Holman’s Criticisms of EBM+. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337544431_Holman's_Criticisms_of_EBM.
   Google Scholar
• Gupta, M. 2007. “Does Evidence-Based Medicine Apply to Psychiatry?” Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 28 (2): 103–120. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11017-007-9029-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Guyatt, G. H., A. D. Oxman, G. E. Vist, R. Kunz, Y. Falck-Ytter, P. Alonso-Coello, and H. J. Schünemann. 2008. “GRADE: An Emerging Consensus on Rating Quality of Evidence and Strength of Recommendations.” BMJ: British Medical Journal 336 (7650): 924–926. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39489.470347.AD.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hempel, C. G. 1965. “Science and Human Values.” In Aspects of Scientific Explanation and Other Essays in the Philosophy of Science, edited by C. G. Hempel, 81–96. New York: Free Press.
   Google Scholar
• Hill, A. B. 1951. “The Clinical Trial.” British Medical Bulletin 7 (4): 278–282. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a073919.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hill, A. B. 1965. “The Environment and Disease: Association or Causation?” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 58 (5): 295–300.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Holman, B. 2019. “Philosophers on Drugs.” Synthese 196 (11): 4363–4390. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-017-1642-2.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holman, B., and T. Wilholt. 2022. “The New Demarcation Problem.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 91: 211–220. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2021.11.011.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holttum, S., and V. Huet. 2014. “The MATISSE Trial–A Critique: Does Art Therapy Really Have Nothing to Offer People With a Diagnosis of Schizophrenia?” SAGE Open 4 (2): 2158244014532930. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014532930.
   Google Scholar
• Howick, J. 2011a. “Exposing the Vanities – and a Qualified Defense – of Mechanistic Reasoning in Health Care Decision Making.” Philosophy of Science 78 (5): 926–940. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/662561.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howick, J. 2011b. The Philosophy of Evidence-Based Medicine. Wiley-Blackwell.
   Google Scholar
• Howick, J., P. Glasziou, and J. K. Aronson. 2009. “The Evolution of Evidence Hierarchies: What Can Bradford Hill’s “Guidelines for Causation” Contribute?” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 102 (5): 186–194. doi:https://doi.org/10.1258/jrsm.2009.090020.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howick, J., and T. Hoffmann. 2018. “How Placebo Characteristics Can Influence Estimates of Intervention Effects in Trials.” CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal = Journal de L’Association Medicale Canadienne 190 (30): E908–E911. doi:https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.171400.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Howick, J., R. K. Webster, J. L. Rees, R. Turner, H. Macdonald, A. Price, et al. 2020. “TIDieR-Placebo: A Guide and Checklist for Reporting Placebo and Sham Controls.” PLoS Medicine 17 (9): e1003294. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003294.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Illari, P. M. 2011. “Mechanistic Evidence: Disambiguating the Russo–Williamson Thesis.” International Studies in the Philosophy of Science 25 (2): 139–157. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/02698595.2011.574856.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Illari, P., and F. Russo. 2014. Causality: Philosophical Theory Meets Scientific Practice. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Jerkert, J. 2015. “Negative Mechanistic Reasoning in Medical Intervention Assessment.” Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics 36 (6): 425–437. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11017-015-9348-2.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• John, S. 2011. “Why the Prevention Paradox Is a Paradox, and Why We Should Solve It: A Philosophical View.” Preventive Medicine 53 (4-5): 250–252. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.07.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• John, S. 2015. “Inductive Risk and the Contexts of Communication.” Synthese 192 (1): 79–96. http://www.jstor.org/stable/247044882019.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• John, S. 2019. “Science, Truth and Dictatorship: Wishful Thinking or Wishful Speaking?” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A 78: 64–72. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2018.12.003.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jukola, S. 2019. “On the Evidentiary Standards for Nutrition Advice.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 73: 1–9. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2018.05.007.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kaptchuk, T. J. 2002. “Acupuncture: Theory, Efficacy, and Practice.” Annals of Internal Medicine 136 (5): 374–383. doi:https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-136-5-200203050-00010.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kirsch, I., B. Wampold, and J. Kelley. 2015. “Controlling for the Placebo Effect in Psychotherapy: Noble Quest or Tilting at Windmills?” Psychology of Consciousness: Theory, Research, and Practice 3. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000065.
   Google Scholar
• Kotsovilis, S., and L. H. Slim. 2012. “Periodontal and Cardiovascular Diseases: Statistical or Causal Association? A Review and Analysis Using Hill’s Criteria for Causation.” Canadian Journal of Dental Hygiene 46 (2): 131–142.
   Google Scholar
• La Caze, A., and M. Colyvan. 2017. “A Challenge for Evidence-Based Policy.” Axiomathes 27 (1): 1–13. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10516-016-9291-5.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Landes, J., B. Osimani, and R. Poellinger. 2018. “Epistemology of Causal Inference in Pharmacology.” European Journal for Philosophy of Science 8 (1): 3–49. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s13194-017-0169-1.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, A., S. K. Chan, and L. T. Fan. 2015. “Stimulation of the Wrist Acupuncture Point PC6 for Preventing Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 11: Article 11. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003281.pub4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lee, A., and L. T. Fan. 2009. “Stimulation of the Wrist Acupuncture Point P6 for Preventing Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting.” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2: Article 2. doi:https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003281.pub3.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Leuridan, B., and E. Weber. 2011. “The IARC and Mechanistic Evidence.” In Causality in the Sciences, edited by P. M. Illari, F. Russo, and J. Williamson, 91–109. Oxford University Press. http://hdl.handle.net/1854/LU-1223153.
   Google Scholar
• Lilienfeld, S. O., L. A. Ritschel, S. J. Lynn, R. L. Cautin, and R. D. Latzman. 2014. “Why Ineffective Psychotherapies Appear to Work: A Taxonomy of Causes of Spurious Therapeutic Effectiveness.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 9 (4): 355–387. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614535216.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lillie, E. O., B. Patay, J. Diamant, B. Issell, E. J. Topol, and N. J. Schork. 2011. “The N-of-1 Clinical Trial: The Ultimate Strategy for Individualizing Medicine?” Personalized Medicine 8 (2): 161–173. doi:https://doi.org/10.2217/pme.11.7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lubowitz, J. H., M. T. Provencher, and G. G. Poehling. 2014. “Congratulations and Condemnations: Level I Evidence Prize for Femoral Tunnel Position in ACL Reconstruction, and AAOS Clinical Practice Guidelines Miss the Mark-Again.” Arthroscopy: The Journal of Arthroscopic & Related Surgery 30 (1): 2–5. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arthro.2013.11.008.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Luján, J. L., and O. Todt. 2020. “Standards of Evidence and Causality in Regulatory Science: Risk and Benefit Assessment.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A 80: 82–89. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2019.05.005.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Machamer, P., L. Darden, and C. F. Craver. 2000. “Thinking About Mechanisms.” Philosophy of Science 67 (1): 1–25.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McAlister, F. A. 2008. “The “Number Needed to Treat” Turns 20 — and Continues to Be Used and Misused.” Canadian Medical Association Journal 179 (6): 549–553. doi:https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.080484.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Naudat, F., A. S. Maria, and B. Falissard. 2011. “Antidepressant Response in Major Depressive Disorder: A Meta-Regression Comparison of Randomized Controlled Trials and Observational Studies.” PLoS One 6 (6): e20811. doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0020811.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology (NCCN Guidelines) With NCCN Evidence Blocks™. 2021. https://www.nccn.org/guidelines/guidelines-with-evidence-blocks.
   Google Scholar
• Neal, J. P. 2019. “When Causal Specificity Does Not Matter (Much): Insights from HIV Treatment.” Philosophy of Science 86 (5): 836–846. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/705510.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nowinski, C. J., D. M. Miller, and D. Cella. 2017. “Evolution of Patient-Reported Outcomes and Their Role in Multiple Sclerosis Clinical Trials.” Neurotherapeutics 14 (4): 934–944. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-017-0571-6.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Parkkinen, V.-P., C. Wallmann, M. Wilde, B. Clarke, P. Illari, M. P. Kelly, C. Norell, F. Russo, B. Shaw, and J. Williamson. 2018. Evaluating Evidence of Mechanisms in Medicine: Principles and Procedures. Springer International Publishing. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94610-8
   Google Scholar
• Peer Review & Public Comments and AAOS Responses to “American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Treatment of Osteoarthritis of the Knee – 2nd Edition Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guideline. 2012. https://www.aaos.org/quality/quality-programs/lower-extremity-programs/osteoarthritis-of-the-knee/.
   Google Scholar
• Perneger, T. V., and T. Agoritsas. 2011. “Doctors and Patients’ Susceptibility to Framing Bias: A Randomized Trial.” Journal of General Internal Medicine 26: 1411–1417. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-011-1810-x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Peters, E., N. Dieckmann, A. Dixon, J. H. Hibbard, and C. K. Mertz. 2007. “Less Is More in Presenting Quality Information to Consumers.” Medical Care Research and Review 64 (2): 169–190. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/10775587070640020301.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Phillips, C. V., and K. J. Goodman. 2006. “Causal Criteria and Counterfactuals; Nothing More (or Less) Than Scientific Common Sense.” Emerging Themes in Epidemiology 3: 5. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-7622-3-5.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Pickering, G. W. 1949. “The Place of the Experimental Method in Medicine.” Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 42 (4): 229–234.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Plutynski, A. 2017. “Safe or Sorry? Cancer Screening and Inductive Risk.” In Exploring Inductive Risk: Case Studies of Values in Science, edited by K. C. Elliott and T. Richards. Oxford University Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190467715.001.0001
   Google Scholar
• Post, P. N., H. de Beer, and G. H. Guyatt. 2013. “How to Generalize Efficacy Results of Randomized Trials: Recommendations Based on a Systematic Review of Possible Approaches.” Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 19 (4): 638–643. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2753.2012.01888.x.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rehfuess, E. A., and E. A. Akl. 2013. “Current Experience With Applying the GRADE Approach to Public Health Interventions: An Empirical Study.” BMC Public Health 13 (1): 1–13. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-9.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reiss, J. 2012. “Causation in the Sciences: An Inferentialist Account.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 43 (4): 769–777. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2012.05.005.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Reiss, J. 2015. “A Pragmatist Theory of Evidence.” Philosophy of Science 82 (3): 341–362. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/681643.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Resnik, D. B. 2017. “Dual-Use Research and Inductive Risk.” In Exploring Inductive Risk: Case Studies of Values in Science, edited by K. C. Elliott and T. Richards. Oxford University Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190467715.003.0004
   Google Scholar
• Rose, G. 2008. Rose’s Strategy of Preventive Medicine. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Rothman, K. J., and S. Greenland. 2005. “Causation and Causal Inference in Epidemiology.” American Journal of Public Health 95 (S1): S144–S150. doi:https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.059204.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Rudner, R. 1953. “The Scientist qua Scientist Makes Value Judgments.” Philosophy of Science 20: 1–6. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/287231.
   Google Scholar
• Russo, F., and J. Williamson. 2007. “Interpreting Causality in the Health Sciences.” International Studies in the Philosophy of Science 21 (2): 157–170. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/02698590701498084.
   Google Scholar
• Russo, F., and J. Williamson. 2011a. “Epistemic Causality and Evidence-Based Medicine.” History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 33 (4): 563–581.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Russo, F., and J. Williamson. 2011b. “Generic Versus Single-Case Causality: The Case of Autopsy.” European Journal for Philosophy of Science 1 (1): 47–69. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s13194-010-0012-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sackett, D. L., W. M. C. Rosenberg, J. A. M. Gray, R. B. Haynes, and W. S. Richardson. 1996. “Evidence Based Medicine: What it Is and What it Isn’t.” BMJ 312: 71. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.312.7023.71.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Savulescu, J., K. Wartolowska, and A. Carr. 2016. “Randomised Placebo-Controlled Trials of Surgery: Ethical Analysis and Guidelines.” Journal of Medical Ethics 42 (12): 776. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2015-103333.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schünemann, H., S. Hill, G. Guyatt, E. A. Akl, and F. Ahmed. 2011. “The GRADE Approach and Bradford Hill’s Criteria for Causation.” Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 65 (5): 392–395. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/jech.2010.119933.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shi, Y., T. Xu, Q. Chen, J. Wu, Y. Zhong, S. Song, Y. Chen, W. Gao, and L. Zhao. 2019. “Acupuncture for Radiotherapy-Induced Nausea and Vomiting: A Systematic Review Protocol.” Medicine 98 (24): e16027. doi:https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000016027.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Shimonovich, M., A. Pearce, H. Thomson, K. Keyes, and S. V. Katikireddi. 2021. “Assessing Causality in Epidemiology: Revisiting Bradford Hill to Incorporate Developments in Causal Thinking.” European Journal of Epidemiology 36 (9): 873–887. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-020-00703-7.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith, A. D., H. Refsum, T. Bottiglieri, M. Fenech, B. Hooshmand, A. McCaddon, J. W. Miller, I. H. Rosenberg, and R. Obeid. 2018. “Homocysteine and Dementia: An International Consensus Statement.” Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease: JAD 62 (2): 561–570. doi:https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-171042.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Solomon, M. 2015. Making Medical Knowledge. Oxford University Press.
   Google Scholar
• Stang, A., C. Poole, and R. Bender. 2010. “Common Problems Related to the Use of Number Needed to Treat.” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 63 (8): 820–825. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2009.08.006.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Steele, K. 2012. “The Scientist qua Policy Advisor Makes Value Judgments.” Philosophy of Science 79 (5): 893–904. doi:https://doi.org/10.1086/66784.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stegenga, J. 2011. “Is Meta-analysis the Platinum Standard of Evidence?” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 42 (4): 497–507. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2011.07.003.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stegenga, J. 2014. “Down With the Hierarchies.” Topoi 33: 313–322. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11245-013-9189-4.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stegenga, J. 2015. “Measuring Effectiveness.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 54: 62–71. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2015.06.003.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Stegenga, J. 2017. “Drug Regulation and the Inductive Risk Calculus.” In Exploring Inductive Risk: Case Studies of Values in Science, edited by K. C. Elliott and T. Richards. Oxford University Press. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190467715.003.0002
   Google Scholar
• Stiles, W. B. 2009. “Responsiveness as an Obstacle for Psychotherapy Outcome Research: It’s Worse Than You Think.” Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 16 (1): 86–91. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.2009.01148.x.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stiles, W. B., M. Barkham, J. Connell, and J. Mellor-Clark. 2008. “Responsive Regulation of Treatment Duration in Routine Practice in United Kingdom Primary Care Settings: Replication in a Larger Sample.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 76 (2): 298–305. doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.76.2.298.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tresker, S. Forthcoming. “Treatment Effectiveness, Generalizability, and the Explanatory/Pragmatic-Trial Distinction.” Synthese.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 1964. Smoking and Health: Report of the Advisory Committee to the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service. PHS Publication No. 1103. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control.
   Google Scholar
• Uttley, L., M. Stevenson, A. Scope, A. Rawdin, and A. Sutton. 2015. “The Clinical and Cost Effectiveness of Group Art Therapy for People with Non-Psychotic Mental Health Disorders: A Systematic Review and Cost-Effectiveness Analysis.” BMC Psychiatry 15: 151. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-015-0528-4.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walker, M. J., and W. Rogers. 2014. “What Can Feminist Epistemology Do for Surgery?” Hypatia 29 (2): 404–421. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/hypa.12052.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ward, A. C. 2009. “The Role of Causal Criteria in Causal Inferences: Bradford Hill’s ‘Aspects of Association.’” Epidemiologic Perspectives & Innovations: EP + I 6: 2. doi:https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-5573-6-2.
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilde, M., and V.-P. Parkkinen. 2019. “Extrapolation and the Russo–Williamson Thesis.” Synthese 196 (8): 3251–3262. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-017-1573-y.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilholt, T. 2009. “Bias and Values in Scientific Research.” Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A 40 (1): 92–101. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2008.12.005.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williamson, J. 2019. “Establishing Causal Claims in Medicine.” International Studies in the Philosophy of Science 32 (1): 33–61. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/02698595.2019.1630927.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williamson, J. 2021. “Establishing the Teratogenicity of Zika and Evaluating Causal Criteria.” Synthese 198: 2505–2518. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s11229-018-1866-9.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wood, C. 2013. “In the Wake of the Matisse RCT: What About Art Therapy and Psychosis?” International Journal of Art Therapy 18 (3): 88–97. doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/17454832.2013.850104.
   Google Scholar
• Woodward, J. 2010. “Causation in Biology: Stability, Specificity, and the Choice of Levels of Explanation.” Biology & Philosophy 25: 287–318.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Zinman, B., C. Wanner, J. M. Lachin, D. Fitchett, E. Bluhmki, S. Hantel, M. Mattheus, et al. 2015. “Empagliflozin, Cardiovascular Outcomes, and Mortality in Type 2 Diabetes.” New England Journal of Medicine 373 (22): 2117–2128. doi:https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1504720.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar