Appraisals are direct, immediate, intuitive, and unwitting…and some are reflective…

References

• Arnold , M. B. 1945 . Physiological differentiation of emotional states . Psychological Review , 52 : 35 – 48 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Arnold , M. B. 1950 . “ An excitatory theory of emotion ” . In Feelings and emotions. The Mooseheart symposium , Edited by: Reymert , M. L. 11 – 33 . New York : McGraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Arnold , M. B. 1960a . Emotion and personality: Vol. 1. Psychological aspects , New York : Columbia University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Arnold , M. B. 1960b . Emotion and personality: Vol. 2. Neurological and physiological aspects , New York : Columbia University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Arnold , M. B . (Ed.) . ( 1970 ). Feelings and emotions: The Loyola Symposium . New York : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Arnold , M. B. and Gasson , J. A. 1954 . “ Feelings and emotions as dynamic factors in personality integration ” . In The human person: An approach to an integral theory of personality , Edited by: Arnold , M. B. and Gasson , J. A. 294 – 313 . New York : Ronald Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bargh , J. A. and Ferguson , M. J. 2000 . Beyond behaviorism: On the automaticity of higher mental processes . Psychological Bulletin , 126 : 925 – 945 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berridge , K. C. 2004 . “ Pleasure, unfelt affect, irrational desire ” . In Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam Symposium , Edited by: Manstead , A. S. R. , Frijda , N. H. and Fischer , A. H. 243 – 262 . Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Bradley , M. M. , Cuthbert , B. N. and Lang , P. J. 1999 . “ Affect and the startle reflex ” . In Startle modification: Implications for neuroscience, cognitive science, and clinical science , Edited by: Dawson , M. E. , Schell , A. M. and Böhmelt , A. H. 157 – 183 . Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cacioppo , J. T. , Berntson , G. G. and Crites , S. L. Jr . 1996 . “ Social neuroscience: Principles of psychophysiological arousal and response ” . In Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles , Edited by: Higgins , E. T. and Kruglanski , A. W. 72 – 101 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Cacioppo , J. T. and Gardner , W. L. 1999 . Emotion . Annual Review of Psychology , 50 : 191 – 214 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Cannon , W. B. 1927 . The James–Lange theory of emotions: A critical examination and an alternative theory . American Journal of Psychology , 39 : 106 – 124 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Chaiken , S. , & Trope , Y . (Eds.) . ( 1999 ). Dual process theories in social psychology . New York : Guilford Press .
   Google Scholar
• Cornelius , R. R . ( 1996 ). The science of emotion: Research and tradition in the psychology of emotion . Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall .
   Google Scholar
• Damasio , A. R. 1994 . Descartes’ error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain , New York : Putnam .
   Google Scholar
• Damasio , A. R. 2004 . “ Emotions and feelings: A neurobiological perspective ” . In Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam Symposium , Edited by: Manstead , A. S. R. , Frijda , N. H. and Fischer , A. H. 49 – 57 . Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Davidson , R. J. 1999 . “ Neuropsychological perspectives on affective styles and their cognitive consequences ” . In Handbook of cognition and emotion , Edited by: Dalgleish , T. and Power , M. J. 103 – 123 . Chichester, , UK : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Dawson , M. E. , Schell , A. M. , & Böhmelt , A. H. (Eds.) . ( 1999 ). Startle modification: Implications for neuroscience, cognitive science, and clinical science . Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Dennett , D. 1991 . Consciousness explained , Boston : Little, Brown & Co .
   Google Scholar
• Dunn , B. D. , Dalgleish , T. and Lawrence , A. D. 2006 . The somatic marker hypothesis: A critical evaluation . Neuroscience and Biobehavioural Reviews , 30 : 239 – 271 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ekman , P. 2004 . “ What we become emotional about ” . In Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam Symposium , Edited by: Manstead , A. S. R. , Frijda , N. H. and Fischer , A. H. 119 – 135 . Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Ellsworth , P. C. and Scherer , K. R. 2003 . “ Appraisal processes in emotion ” . In Handbook of affective sciences , Edited by: Davidson , R. J. , Scherer , K. R. and Goldsmith , H. H. 572 – 595 . Oxford, , UK : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Frijda , N. H. 1986 . The emotions , Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Frijda , N. H. 2000 . “ Spinoza and current theory of emotion ” . In Desire and affect: Spinoza as psychologist—Ethica III , Edited by: Yovel , Y. 235 – 264 . New York : Little Room Press .
   Google Scholar
• Frijda , N. H. 2005 . Emotion experience . Cognition and Emotion , 19 : 473 – 497 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Ittelson , W. H. 1973 . “ Environment perception and contemporary perceptual theory ” . In Environment and cognition , Edited by: Ittelson , W. H. 1 – 19 . New York : Seminar Press .
   Google Scholar
• Izard , C. E. 1993 . Four systems for emotion activation: Cognitive and noncognitive processes . Psychological Review , 100 : 68 – 90 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• James , W. 1890 . The principles of psychology , Vol. II , New York : Holt .
   Google Scholar
• Johnstone , T. , van Reekum , C. M. and Scherer , K. R. 2001 . “ Vocal expression correlates of appraisal processes ” . In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research , Edited by: Scherer , K. R. , Schorr , A. and Johnstone , T. 271 – 284 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kaiser , S. and Wehrle , T. 2001 . “ Facial expressions as indicators of appraisal processes ” . In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research , Edited by: Scherer , K. R. , Schorr , A. and Johnstone , T. 285 – 300 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kappas , A. 1995 . Event-related facial activity: In pursuit of componential approaches to the expression of emotional reactions . Psychophysiology , 32 : S6
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kappas , A. 1997 His master's voice: Acoustic analysis of spontaneous vocalizations in an ongoing active coping task . Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Psychophysiological Research , Cape Cod , MA, , USA
   Google Scholar
• Kappas , A. 2001 . “ A metaphor is a metaphor is a metaphor: Exorcising the homunculus from appraisal ” . In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research , Edited by: Scherer , K. R. , Schorr , A. and Johnstone , T. 157 – 172 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Kappas , A. 2002 . The science of emotion as a multidisciplinary research paradigm . Behavioural Processes , 60 : 85 – 98 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kappas , A. 2004 . Can emotions be unconscious? Yes! Next question please …  . Emotion Researcher , 19 ( 1 ) : 12 – 13 .
   Google Scholar
• Kappas , A. and Pecchinenda , A. 1999 . Don't wait for the monsters to get you: A video game task to manipulate appraisals in real time . Cognition and Emotion , 13 : 119 – 124 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang , P. J. , Bradley , M. M. and Cuthbert , B. N. 1990 . Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex . Psychological Review , 97 : 377 – 395 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus , R. S. 1982 . Thoughts on the relation between emotion and cognition . American Psychologist , 37 : 1019 – 1024 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus , R. S. 1984 . On the primacy of cognition . American Psychologist , 39 : 124 – 129 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lazarus , R. S. 1999 . “ The cognition–emotion debate: A bit of history ” . In Handbook of cognition and emotion , Edited by: Dalgleish , T. and Power , M. J. 3 – 19 . Chichester, , UK : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Lazarus , R. S. 2001 . “ Relational meanings and discrete emotions ” . In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research , Edited by: Scherer , K. R. , Schorr , A. and Johnstone , T. 37 – 67 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lazarus , R. S. and Alfert , E. 1964 . Short-circuiting of threat by experimentally altering cognitive appraisal . Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology , 69 : 195 – 205 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• LeDoux , J. 1996 . The emotional brain: The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life , New York : Simon & Schuster .
   Google Scholar
• Leventhal , H. and Scherer , K. R. 1987 . The relationship of emotion to cognition: A functional approach to a semantic controversy . Cognition and Emotion , 1 : 3 – 28 .
   Google Scholar
• Manstead , A. S. R. , Frijda , N. H. , & Fischer , A. H . (Eds.) . ( 2004 ). Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam Symposium . Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Marcus , G. E. 2000 . Emotion in politics . Annual Review of Political Science , 3 : 221 – 250 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• McIntosh , D. N. 1996 . Facial feedback hypotheses: Evidence, implications, and directions . Motivation and Emotion , 20 : 121 – 147 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nisbett , R. E. and Schachter , S. 1966 . Cognitive manipulation of pain . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 2 : 227 – 236 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Nisbett , R. and Wilson , T. 1977 . Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes . Psychological Review , 84 : 231 – 259 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Öhman , A. and Wiens , S. 2004 . “ The concept of an evolved fear module and cognitive theories of anxiety ” . In Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam Symposium , Edited by: Manstead , A. S. R. , Frijda , N. H. and Fischer , A. H. 58 – 80 . Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Panksepp , J. 1998 . Affective neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Parkinson , B. 2001 . “ Putting appraisal in context ” . In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research , Edited by: Scherer , K. R. , Schorr , A. and Johnstone , T. 173 – 186 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Pecchinenda , A. 2001 . “ The physiology of appraisals ” . In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research , Edited by: Scherer , K. R. , Schorr , A. and Johnstone , T. 300 – 315 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Pecchinenda , A. and Smith , C. A. 1996 . The affective significance of skin conductance activity during a difficult problem-solving task . Cognition and Emotion , 10 : 481 – 503 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reisenzein , R. 1983 . The Schachter theory of emotion: Two decades later . Psychological Bulletin , 94 : 239 – 264 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Reisenzein , R. 2001 . “ Appraisal processes conceptualized from a schematic-theoretic perspective: Contributions to a process analysis of emotions ” . In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research , Edited by: Scherer , K. R. , Schorr , A. and Johnstone , T. 187 – 201 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Reisenzein , R. and Schönpflug , W. 1992 . Stumpf's cognitive-evaluative theory of emotion . American Psychologist , 47 : 34 – 45 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Robinson , M. D. and Clore , G. L. 2002 . Belief and feeling: Evidence for an accessibility model of emotional self report . Psychological Bulletin , 128 : 934 – 960 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Roseman , I. J. 1984 . “ Cognitive determinants of emotions: A structural theory ” . In Review of personality and social psychology , Edited by: Shaver , P. Vol. 5 , 11 – 36 . Beverly Hills, CA : Sage .
   Google Scholar
• Roseman , I. J. and Kaiser , S. 2001 . “ Application of appraisal theory to understanding, diagnosing, and treating emotional pathology ” . In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research , Edited by: Scherer , K. R. , Schorr , A. and Johnstone , T. 249 – 267 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Roseman , I. J. and Smith , C. A. 2001 . “ Appraisal theory: Overview, assumptions, varieties, controversies ” . In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research , Edited by: Scherer , K. R. , Schorr , A. and Johnstone , T. 3 – 19 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Schachter , S. and Singer , J. E. 1962 . Cognitive, social and physiological determinants of emotional state . Psychological Review , 69 : 379 – 399 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scherer , K. R. 1984 . “ On the nature and function of emotion: A component process approach ” . In Approaches to emotion , Edited by: Scherer , K. R. and Ekman , P. 293 – 318 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Scherer , K. R. 1986 . Vocal affect expression: A review and a model for future research . Psychological Bulletin , 99 : 143 – 165 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scherer , K. R. 1988 . “ Criteria for emotion-antecedent appraisal: A review ” . In Cognitive perspectives on emotion and motivation , Edited by: Hamilton , V. , Bower , G. H. and Frijda , N. H. 89 – 126 . Dordrecht, , The Netherlands : Nijhoff .
   Google Scholar
• Scherer , K. R. 1994 . “ Emotion serves to decouple stimulus and response ” . In The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions , Edited by: Ekman , P. and Davidson , R. J. 127 – 130 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Scherer , K. R. 2004 . “ Feelings integrate the central representation of appraisal-driven response organization in emotion ” . In Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam Symposium , Edited by: Manstead , A. S. R. , Frijda , N. H. and Fischer , A. H. 136 – 157 . Cambridge, , UK : Cambridge University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Schorr , A. 2001 . “ Appraisal: The evolution of an idea ” . In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research , Edited by: Scherer , K. R. , Schorr , A. and Johnstone , T. 20 – 34 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Shields , S. A. and Steinke , P. 2003 . “ Does self-report make sense as an investigative method in evolutionary psychology? ” . In Evolution, violence, and gender , Edited by: Travis , C. B. 87 – 104 . Cambridge, MA : MIT Press .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , C. A. 1992 . The dynamics of digit skin temperature during a math problem-solving task . Psychophysiology , 29 : S65
   Google Scholar
• Smith , C. A. 1989 . Dimensions of appraisal and physiological response in emotion . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 56 : 339 – 353 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , C. A. and Ellsworth , P. C. 1985 . Patterns of cognitive appraisal in emotion . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 48 : 813 – 838 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , C. A. and Ellsworth , P. C. 1987 . Patterns of appraisal and emotion related to taking an exam . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 52 : 475 – 488 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , C. A. and Kirby , L. D. 2001 . “ Toward delivering on the promise of appraisal theory ” . In Appraisal processes in emotion: Theory, methods, research , Edited by: Scherer , K. R. , Schorr , A. and Johnstone , T. 121 – 138 . New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , C. A. , McHugo , G. J. and Kappas , A. 1996 . Epilogue: Overarching themes and enduring contributions of the Lanzetta research program . Motivation and Emotion , 20 : 237 – 253 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , C. A. and Lazarus , R. S. 1990 . “ Emotion and adaptation ” . In Handbook of personality theory and research , Edited by: Pervin , L. A. 609 – 637 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Sutton , S. K. and Davidson , R. J. 1997 . Prefrontal brain asymmetry: A biological substrate of the behavioral approach and inhibition systems . Psychological Science , 8 : 204 – 210 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tomaka , J. , Blascovich , J. , Kelsey , R. M. and Leitten , C. L. 1993 . Subjective, physiological, and behavioral effects of threat and challenge appraisal . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 65 : 248 – 260 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Winkielman , P. and Berridge , K. C. 2004 . Unconscious emotion . Current Directions in Psychological Science , 13 : 120 – 123 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wundt , W. 1907 . Outlines of psychology , Leipzig, , Germany : Engelmann .
   Google Scholar
• Zajonc , R. B. 1980 . Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences . American Psychologist , 39 : 151 – 75 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar