The envious mind

References

• Aristotle . ( 1991 ). On rhetoric. A theory of civic discourse ( G. A. Kennedy, Trans ). New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Aspinwall , L. G. and Taylor , S. E. 1993 . The effects of social comparison direction, threat, and self-esteem on affect, self-evaluation, and expected success . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 64 : 708 – 722 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Averill , J. 1982 . Anger and aggression: An essay on emotion , New York : Springer .
   Google Scholar
• Ben-Ze'ev , A. 1992 . Envy and inequality . Journal of Philosophy , 89 : 551 – 581 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berke , J. K. 1989 . The tyranny of malice , London : Simon & Schuster .
   Google Scholar
• Berkowitz , L. 1989 . Frustration–aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation . Psychological Bulletin , 106 : 59 – 73 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Berlyne , D. E. 1960 . Conflict, arousal, and curiosity , New York : McGraw-Hill .
   Google Scholar
• Brigham , N. L. , Kelso , K. A. , Jackson , M. A. and Smith , R. H. 1997 . The roles of invidious comparisons and deservingness in sympathy and schadenfreude . Basic and Applied Social Psychology , 19 : 363 – 380 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Buunk , B. P. 1991 . “ Jealousy in close relationships: An exchange-theoretical perspective ” . In The psychology of jealousy and envy , Edited by: Salovey , P. 148 – 177 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Buunk , B. P. , Collins , R. L. , Taylor , S. E. , VanYperen , N. W. and Dakof , G. A. 1990 . The affective consequences of social comparison: Either direction has its ups and downs . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 59 : 1238 – 1249 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Castelfranchi , C. , Miceli , M. and Parisi , D. 1980 . Invidia . Giornale Italiano di Psicologia , 7 : 95 – 119 .
   Google Scholar
• Collins , R. L. 1996 . For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations . Psychological Bulletin , 119 : 51 – 69 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Dakin , S. and Arrowood , A. J. 1981 . The social comparison of ability . Human Relations , 34 : 89 – 109 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• East , M. P. and Watts , F. N. 1999 . “ Jealousy and envy ” . In Handbook of cognition and emotion , Edited by: Dalgleish , T. and Power , M. 569 – 588 . Chichester, , UK : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Exline , J. J. and Lobel , M. 1999 . The perils of outperformance: Sensitivity about being the target of a threatening upward comparison . Psychological Bulletin , 125 : 307 – 337 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Farber , L. H. ( 2000 ). The ways of the will . New York : Basic Books . ( Original work published 1966 )
   Google Scholar
• Farrell , D. 1989 . “ Of jealousy and envy ” . In Person to person , Edited by: Graham , G. and LaFollette , H. 245 – 268 . Philadelphia : Temple University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Fava , M. , Abraham , M. , Pava , J. , Shuster , J. and Rosenbaum , J. 1996 . Cardiovascular risk factors in depression: The role of anxiety and anger . Psychosomatics , 37 : 31 – 37 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Feather , N. T. 1994 . “ Attitudes toward high achievers and reactions to their fall ” . In Advances in experimental social psychology , Edited by: Zanna , M. P. Vol. 26 , 1 – 73 . San Diego, CA : Academic Press .
   Google Scholar
• Feather , N. T. 1999 . Judgments of deservingness: Studies in the psychology of justice and achievement . Personality and Social Psychology Review , 3 : 86 – 107 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Feather , N. T. and Sherman , R. 2002 . Envy, resentment, schadenfreude, and sympathy: Reactions to deserved and undeserved achievement and subsequent failure . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 28 : 953 – 961 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Festinger , L. 1954 . A theory of social comparison processes . Human Relations , 7 : 117 – 140 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fiske , S. T. , Cuddy , A. J. C. , Glick , P. and Xu , J. 2002 . A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 82 : 878 – 902 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Foster , G. M. 1972 . The anatomy of envy: A study in symbolic behavior . Current Anthropology , 13 : 165 – 202 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Freud , S. ( 1990 ). Group psychology and the analysis of the ego . New York : Norton & Co. ( Original work published 1921 )
   Google Scholar
• Frijda , N. H. 1993 . The place of appraisal in emotion . Cognition and Emotion , 7 : 357 – 387 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goethals , G. R. and Darley , J. M. 1977 . “ Social comparison theory: An attributional approach ” . In Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives , Edited by: Suls , J. M. and Miller , R. L. 259 – 278 . Washington, DC : Hemisphere .
   Google Scholar
• Gruder , C. 1977 . “ Choice of comparison persons in evaluating oneself ” . In Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives , Edited by: Suls , J. and Miller , R. L. 21 – 42 . Washington, DC : Hemisphere .
   Google Scholar
• Harely , S. and Weiner , B. 2002 . Dislike and envy as antecedents of pleasure at another's misfortune . Motivation and Emotion , 24 : 215 – 234 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Hazlitt , W. ( 1932 ). Characteristics: In the manner of Rochefoucault's Maxims . In P. P. Howe ( Ed. ), The complete works of William Hazlitt ( Vol. 9 , pp. 163 – 229 ). London : Dent . ( Original work published 1823 )
   Google Scholar
• Heider , F. 1958 . The psychology of interpersonal relations , New York : Wiley .
   Google Scholar
• Kant , I. ( 1996 ). Foundations of the metaphysics of morals ( M. Gregor, Trans. ). New York : Cambridge University Press . ( Original work published 1785 )
   Google Scholar
• Kendall , P. C. and Ingram , R. E. 1987 . “ The future for cognitive assessment of anxiety: Let's get specific ” . In Anxiety and stress disorders: Cognitive-behavioral assessment and treatment , Edited by: Michelson , L. and Ascher , L. M. 89 – 104 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Klein , M. 1957 . Envy and gratitude: A study of unconscious forces , New York : Basic Books .
   Google Scholar
• La Rochefoucauld , F. ( 1959 ). Maxims ( L. Tancock, Trans. ). Harmondsworth, , UK : Penguin Books . ( Original work published 1678 )
   Google Scholar
• Lazarus , R. S. 1991 . Emotion and adaptation , New York : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Lockwood , P. and Kunda , Z. 1997 . Superstars and me: Predicting the impact of role models on the self . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 73 : 91 – 103 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Major , B. , Testa , M. and Bylsma , W. 1991 . “ Responses to upward and downward social comparisons: The impact of esteem-relevance and perceived control ” . In Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research , Edited by: Suls , J. and Wills , T. A. 237 – 260 . Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc .
   Google Scholar
• Mao , W. C. , Bardwell , W. A. , Major , J. M. and Dimsdale , J. E. 2003 . Coping strategies, hostility, and depressive symptoms: A path model . International Journal of Behavioral Medicine , 10 : 331 – 342 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mathes , E. W. 1991 . “ A cognitive theory of jealousy ” . In The psychology of jealousy and envy , Edited by: Salovey , P. 52 – 78 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Menninger , K. 1973 . Whatever became of sin? , New York : Hawthorne Books .
   Google Scholar
• Miceli , M. 1992 . How to make someone feel guilty: Strategies of guilt inducement and their goals . Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour , 22 : 81 – 104 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Miceli , M. and Castelfranchi , C. 2002 . The mind and the future: The (negative) power of expectations . Theory & Psychology , 12 : 335 – 366 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mill , J. S. ( 1999 ). On liberty . ( Original work published 1859 ) Retrieved July 2, 2005 from Bartleby.com website: http://www.bartleby.com/130/
   Google Scholar
• Mussweiler , T. 2003 . Comparison processes in social judgment: Mechanisms and consequences . Psychological Review , 110 : 472 – 489 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Neu , J. 1980 . “ Jealous thoughts ” . In Explaining emotions , Edited by: Rorty , A. O. 425 – 463 . Berkeley, CA : University of California Press .
   Google Scholar
• Nosanchuk , T. A. and Erikson , B. H. 1985 . How high is up? Calibrating social comparison in the real world . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 48 : 624 – 634 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Olsson , K. A. 1962 . Seven sins and seven virtues , New York : Harper & Brothers .
   Google Scholar
• Parrott , W. G. 1991 . “ The emotional experiences of envy and jealousy ” . In The psychology of jealousy and envy , Edited by: Salovey , P. 3 – 30 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Parrott , W. G. and Smith , R. H. 1993 . Distinguishing the experiences of envy and jealousy . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 64 : 906 – 920 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Pyszczynski , T. , Greenberg , J. and LaPrelle , J. 1985 . Social comparison after success and failure: Biased search for information consistent with a self-serving conclusion . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 21 : 195 – 211 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Radloff , R. 1966 . Social comparison and ability evaluation . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 2 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 6 – 26 .
   Google Scholar
• Rawls , J. 1971 . A theory of justice , Cambridge, MA : Belknap Press .
   Google Scholar
• Roberts , R. 1991 . What is wrong with wicked feelings? . American Philosophical Quarterly , 28 : 13 – 24 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sabini , J. and Silver , M. 1982 . Moralities of everyday life , Oxford, , UK : Oxford University Press .
   Google Scholar
• Salovey , P. 1991 . “ Preface ” . In The psychology of jealousy and envy , Edited by: Salovey , P. xi – xiii . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Salovey , P. and Rodin , J. 1984 . Some antecedents and consequences of social-comparison jealousy . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 47 : 780 – 792 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salovey , P. and Rodin , J. 1986 . The differentiation of social-comparison jealousy and romantic jealousy . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 50 : 1100 – 1112 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Salovey , P. and Rothman , A. J. 1991 . “ Envy and jealousy: Self and society ” . In The psychology of jealousy and envy , Edited by: Salovey , P. 271 – 286 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Schaubroeck , J. and Lam , S. S. K. 2004 . Comparing lots before and after: Promotion rejectees’ invidious reactions to promotees . Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 94 : 33 – 47 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Scheler , M. ( 1961 ). Ressentiment ( W. W. Holdhein, Trans. ). Glencoe, IL : Free Press . ( Original work published 1915 )
   Google Scholar
• Schoeck , H. 1969 . Envy: A theory of social behaviour , New York : Harcourt, Brace & World .
   Google Scholar
• Silver , M. and Sabini , J. 1978 . The perception of envy . Social Psychology , 41 : 105 – 117 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , C. A. and Lazarus , R. S. 1993 . Appraisal components, core relational themes, and the emotions . Cognition and Emotion , 7 : 233 – 269 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , C. A. , Haynes , K. N. , Lazarus , R. S. and Pope , L. K. 1993 . In search of the “hot” cognitions: Attributions, appraisals, and their relation to emotion . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 65 : 916 – 929 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , R. H. 1991 . “ Envy and the sense of injustice ” . In The psychology of jealousy and envy , Edited by: Salovey , P. 79 – 99 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Smith , R. H. , Kim , S. H. and Parrott , W. G. 1988 . Envy and jealousy: Semantic problems and experiential distinctions . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 14 : 401 – 409 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , R. H. , Parrott , W. G. , Diener , E. , Hoyle , R. H. and Kim , S. H. 1999 . Dispositional envy . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 25 : 1007 – 1020 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , R. H. , Parrott , W. G. , Ozer , D. and Moniz , A. 1994 . Subjective injustice and inferiority as predictors of hostile and depressive feelings in envy . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 20 : 705 – 711 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Smith , R. H. , Turner , T. J. , Garonzik , R. , Leach , C. W. , Urch-Druskat , V. and Weston , C. M. 1996 . Envy and schadenfreude . Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 22 : 158 – 168 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Sullivan , H. S. 1953 . The interpersonal theory of psychiatry , New York : Norton .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , G. 1988 . Envy and jealousy: Emotions and vices . Midwest Studies in Philosophy , 13 : 233 – 249 .
   Google Scholar
• Taylor , S. E. , Wayment , H. A. and Carrillo , M. 1996 . “ Social comparison, self-regulation, and motivation ” . In Handbook of motivation and cognition , Edited by: Sorrentino , R. M. and Higgins , E. T. 3 – 27 . New York : Guilford .
   Google Scholar
• Tesser , A. and Collins , J. E. 1988 . Emotion in social reflection and comparison situations: Intuitive, systematic, and exploratory approaches . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 55 : 695 – 709 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Tesser , A. , Millar , M. and Moore , J. 1988 . Some affective consequences of social comparison and reflection processes: The pain and pleasure of being close . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 54 : 49 – 61 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Testa , M. and Major , B. 1990 . The impact of social comparison after failure: The moderating effects of perceived control . Basic and Applied Social Psychology , 44 : 672 – 682 .
   Google Scholar
• Thomson , J. (1842) . The Seasons . London : Longman, Brown, Green, & Longman's . (Original work published 1730) .
   Google Scholar
• Thornton , D. and Arrowood , A. J. 1966 . Self-evaluation, self-enhancement, and the locus of social comparison . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 2 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 40 – 48 .
   Google Scholar
• Tooby , J. and Cosmides , L. 1990 . The past explains the present: Emotional adaptations and the structure of ancestral environment . Ethology and Sociobiology , 11 : 375 – 424 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Dijk , W. W. , Ouwerkerk , J. W. , Goslinga , S. and Nieweg , M. 2005 . Deservingness and schadenfreude . Cognition and Emotion , 19 : 933 – 939 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Van Dijk , W. W. , Ouwerkerk , J. W. , Goslinga , S. , Nieweg , M. , & Gallucci , M. ( 2006 ). When people fall from grace: Reconsidering the role of envy in schadenfreude . Emotion , 6 , 156 – 160 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiner , B. 1985a . An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion . Psychological Review , 92 : 548 – 573 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiner , B. 1985b . Spontaneous” causal thinking . Psychological Bulletin , 97 : 74 – 84 .
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wheeler , L. 1966 . Motivation as a determinant of upward comparison . Journal of Experimental Social Psychology , 2 ( Suppl. 1 ) : 27 – 31 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wheeler , L. , Martin , R. and Suls , J. 1997 . The proxy model of social comparison for self-assessment of ability . Personality and Social Psychology Review , 1 : 54 – 61 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wiebe , R. E. and McCabe , S. B. 2002 . Relationship perfectionism, dysphoria, and hostile interpersonal behaviors . Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology , 21 : 67 – 91 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wills , T. A. 1981 . Downward comparison principles in social psychology . Psychological Bulletin , 90 : 245 – 271 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Wilson , S. R. 1973 . Ability evaluation and self-evaluation as types of social comparison . Sociometry , 36 : 600 – 607 .
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wood , J. V. 1989 . Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes . Psychological Bulletin , 106 : 231 – 248 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Young , R. 1987 . Egalitarianism and envy . Philosophical Studies , 52 : 261 – 276 .
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar