Automatic control of negative emotions: Evidence that structured practice increases the efficiency of emotion regulation

REFERENCES

• Aasman, J., Mulder, G., & Mulder, L. J. (1987). Operator effort and the measurement of heart rate variability. Human Factors, 29, 161–170.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Alberts, H., Schneider, F., & Martijn, C. (2012). Dealing efficiently with emotions: Acceptance-based coping with negative emotions requires fewer resources than suppression. Cognition and Emotion, 26, 863–870. doi:10.1080/02699931.2011.625402
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Amir, N., Beard, C., Burns, M., & Bomyea, J. (2009). Attention modification program in individuals with generalized anxiety disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(1), 28–33. doi:10.1037/a0012589
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Bargh, J. A., & Ferguson, M. J. (2000). Beyond behaviorism: On the automaticity of higher mental processes. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 925–945. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.6.925
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Camm, A. J., Malik, M., Bigger, J. T., Breithardt, G., Cerutti, S., Cohen, R. J., … Singer, D. (1996). Heart rate variability: Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation, and clinical use. Circulation, 93, 1043–1065, 354–381.
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Denson, T. F., Grisham, J. R., & Moulds, M. L. (2011). Cognitive reappraisal increases heart rate variability in response to an anger provocation. Motivation and Emotion, 35, 14–22. doi:10.1007/s11031-011-9201-5
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Duckworth, K. L., Bargh, J. A., Garcia, M., & Chaiken, S. (2002). The automatic evaluation of novel stimuli. Psychological Science, 13, 513–519. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00490
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Fairchild, G., Van Goozen, S. H., Stollery, S. J., & Goodyer, I. M. (2008). Fear conditioning and affective modulation of the startle reflex in male adolescent with early-onset or adolescenc-onset conduct disorder and healthy control subjects. Biological Psychiatry, 63, 279–285. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.06.019
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gardner, B., Abraham, C., Lally, P., & De Bruijn, G. (2012). Towards parsimony in habit measurement: Testing the convergent and predictive validity of an automaticity subscale of the self-report habit index. International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9(1), 102. doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2007.05.007
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Goedhart, A. D., Van Der Sluis, S., Houtveen, J. H., Willemsen, G., & De Geus, E. J. (2007). Comparison of time and frequency domain measures of RSA in ambulatory recordings. Psychophysiology, 44, 203–215. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2006.00490.x
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross, J. J. (1998). Antecedent and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 224–237. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.224
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gross, J. J., & Levenson, R. W. (1995). Emotion elicitation using films. Cognition and Emotion, 9(1), 87–108. doi:10.1080/02699939508408966
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Gyurak, A., Gross, J. J., & Etkin, A. (2011). Explicit and implicit emotion regulation: A dual-process framework. Cognition and Emotion, 25, 400–412. doi:10.1080/02699931.2010.544160
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Holmes, E. A., Lang, T. J., & Shah, D. M. (2009). Developing interpretation bias modification as a “cognitive vaccine” for depressed mood: Imagining positive events makes you feel better than thinking about them verbally. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(1), 76–88. doi:10.1037/a0012590
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jansma, J. M., Ramsey, N. F., Slagter, H. A., & Kahn, R. S. (2001). Functional anatomical correlates of controlled and automatic processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 13, 730–743. doi:10.1006/nimg.1995.1023
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Jensen, K. B., Petrovic, P., Kerr, C. E., Kirsch, I., Raicek, J., Cheetham, A., … Kaptehuk, T. J. (2013). Sharing pain and relief: Neural correlates of physicians during treatment of patients. Molecular Psychiatry, 19, 392–398. doi:10.1038/mp.2012.195
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Kennedy, D. O., & Scholey, A. B. (2000). Glucose administration, heart rate and cognitive performance: Effects of increase mental effort. Psychopharmacology, 149(1), 63–71. doi:10.1007/s002139900335
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Koole, S. L. (2009). The psychology of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Cognition and Emotion, 23(1), 4–41. doi:10.1080/02699930802619031
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2005). International affective picture system (IAPS): Digitized photographs, instruction manual and affective ratings. Technical Report A-6. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida.
   Google Scholar
• Little, D. M., Klein, R., Shobat, D. M., McClure, E. D., & Thulborn, K. R. (2004). Changing patterns of brain activation during category learning revealed by functional MRI. Cognitive Brain Research, 22(1), 84–93. doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.07.011
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lu, G., Yang, F., Taylor, J. A., & Stein, J. F. (2009). A comparison of photoplethysmography and ECG recording to analyse heart rate variability in healthy subjects. Journal of Medical Engineering & Technology, 33, 634–641. doi:10.3109/03091900903150998
   PubMedGoogle Scholar
• MacLeod, C., Koster, E., & Fox, E. (2009). Whither cognitive bias modification research? Commentary on the special section articles. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(1), 89–99. doi:10.1037/a0014878
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Mahdavi-Haji, T., Mohammadkhani, S., & Hahtami, M. (2011). The effectiveness of life skills training on happiness, quality of life and emotion regulation. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 407–411. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.080
   Google Scholar
• Mauss, I. B., Bunge, S. A., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Automatic emotion regulation. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 1(1), 146–167. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00005.x
   Google Scholar
• Mauss, I. B., & Robinson, M. D. (2009). Measures of emotion: A review. Cognition and Emotion, 23, 209–237. doi:10.1080/02699930802204677
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Moors, A., & De Houwer, J. (2006). Automaticity: A theoretical and conceptual analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 297–326. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.297
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Muraven, M., Tice, D. M., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Self-control as a limited resource: Regulatory depletion patterns. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 774–789. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.3.774
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Posner, M. I., & Snyder, C. R. (1975). Attention and cognitive control. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and cognition: The Loyola symposium (pp. 55–85). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
   Google Scholar
• Reder, L., & Klatzky, R. L. (1994). Transfer training performance. In D. Druckman & R. A. Bjork (Eds.), Learning, remembering, believing: Enhancing human performance (pp. 25–56). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
   Google Scholar
• Saling, L. L., & Phillips, J. G. (2007). Automatic behaviour: Efficient not mindless. Brain Research Bulletin, 73(1–3), 1–20. doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2007.02.009
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schartau, P. E., Dalgleish, T., & Dunn, B. D. (2009). Seeing the bigger picture: Training in perspective broadening reduces self-reported affect and psychophysiological response to distressing films and autobiographical memories. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118(1), 15–27. doi:10.1037/a0012906
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977a). Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search, and attention. Psychological Review, 84(1), 1–66. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.84.1.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1977b). Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84(1), 127–190. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.84.1.1
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Stallard, P., Simpson, N., Anderson, S., Carter, T., Osborn, C., & Bush, S. (2005). An evaluation of the FRIENDS programme: A cognitive behaviour therapy intervention to promote emotional resilience. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 90, 1016–1019. doi:10.1136/adc.2004.068163
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thayer, J. F., & Lane, R. D. (2009). Claude Bernard and the heart–brain connection: Further elaboration of a model of neurovisceral integration. Neuroscience and Biobehavioural Research, 33(2), 81–88. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.08.004
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Thiruchselvam, R., Hajcak, G., & Gross, J. J. (2012). Looking inwards: Shifting attention within working memory representations alters emotional responses. Psychological Science, 23, 1461–1466. doi:10.1177/0956797612449838
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Turner, J. R., & Carroll, D. (1985). Heart rate and oxygen consumption during mental arithmetic, a video game, and graded exercises: Further evidence for metabolically exaggerated cardiac adjustment. Psychophysiology, 20, 544–549. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.1983.tb03010.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Verplanken, B., & Orbell, S. (2003). Reflections on past behavior: A self-report of habit strength. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33, 1313–1330. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2003.tb01951.x
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Walden, T. A., & Smith, M. C. (1997). Emotion regulation. Motivation and Emotion, 21, 7–25.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb, T. L., Miles, E., & Sheeran, P. (2012). Dealing with feeling: A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of strategies derived from the process model of emotion regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 138, 775–808. doi:10.1037/a0027600
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Webb, T. L., Sheeran, P., & Luszczynska, A. (2009). Planning to break unwanted habits: Habit strength moderates implementation intention effects on behaviour change. British Journal of Social Psychology, 48, 507–523. doi:10.1348/014466608X370591
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Weiss, V. (1986). From memory span to the quantum mechanics of intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 7, 737–749.
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Westermann, R., Spies, K., Stahl, G., & Hesse, F. W. (1996). Relative effectiveness and validity of mood induction procedures: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 557–580. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-0992(199607)26:4<557::AID-EJSP769>3.0.CO;2-4
   Web of Science ®Google Scholar
• Williams, L. E., Bargh, J. A., Nocera, C. C., & Gray, J. R. (2009). The unconscious regulation of emotions: Nonconscious reappraisal goals modulate emotional reactivity. Emotion, 9, 847–854. doi:10.1037/a0017745
   PubMed Web of Science ®Google Scholar